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itttbtCitpofHetaJ9ork 

OInlUgr  of  {HfysirianB  anil  fturgfona 


^tUr^nti  ICtbrarg 


No.  9   IN   THE   PHYSICIANS'   AND   STUDENTS'   READY 
EEFERENCE   SEPJES. 


Medical  Symbolism 


IN  CONNECTION  WITH 


HISTORICAL    STUDIES    IN   THE    ARTS   OF 
HEALING   AND    HYGIENE. 


I3ULXJSTP5.jPlTE:3D. 


THOMAS  S.  SOZINTSKEY,  M.D.,  Ph.D., 

AtJTHOR   OF   "THE   CULTUEK    OF  BEAUTY,"    "THE   CARE    AXD    CULTURE    OF   CHILDREN,"   ETC. 


Philadelphia  a>-t)  London'  : 

F.  A.  DAVIS,  PUBLISHER. 
1891. 


^^ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1891,  by 

EDWARD  S.  POWER,  M.D., 

In  the  Of&oe  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C,  U.  S.  A. 


1^    \3  5 


Philadelphia: 

The  Medical  Bulletin  Printing  House, 

1231  Filbert  Street. 


DEDICATION. 


The  medical  profession  is  often  spoken  of  as  non- 
progressive. As  a  practical  member  of  it,  the  author 
is  of  a  different  opinion.  He  knows  full-well  not  only 
that,  to  many,  age  does  not  tend  to  make  anything 
medical  more  worthy  of  attention,  but  that  the  old  is 
apt  to  be  wilfully  overlooked.  He  discovered  some 
time  ago  that  in  the  library  of  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians of  Philadelphia — the  centre,  probably,  of  medical 
learuing  in  the  United  States — Adams'  edition  of  the 
works  of  Hippocrates  had  rested  with  the  leaves  uncut 
for  over  twenty  years.  New  things  are  far  too  much  in 
vogue.  If  Bacon  were  alive  to-day  he  might  still  say, 
with  too  much  truth,  as  he  said  three  hundred  years 
ago :  "  Let  a  man  look  into  phj^sicians'  prescripts  and 
ministrations  and  he  will  find  them  but  inconstancies 
and  every-day  devices,  without  any  settled  providence 
or  project  "  ("  Advancement  of  Learning  ").  The  age 
is  too  much  one  of  trial,  of  incoherency,  to  be  either 
eminently  scientific  or  highl}^  successful  in  practice. 
Be3^ond  question,  the  medicine  of  the  past  is  harmfully 
neglected ;  for  its  literature  few  have  a  desirable  taste, 
and  fewer  yet  a  sufficient  knowledge.  Deploring  this 
state  of  things,  the  author  would  gladl}^  assist  in  bring- 
ing about  a  change.  Hence,  it  affords  him  pleasure  to 
dedicate  this  essay  to  his  professional  brethren. 

(iii) 


PREFACE. 


In  this  essay  I  have  treated,  as  the  title  indicates, 
of  medical  symbolism  in  connection  with  studies,  essen- 
tially historical,  in  the  arts  of  healing  and  hygiene. 
Some  parts  of  it  bear  only  indirectly  on  the  main 
subject ;  but  they  serve  to  render  the  whole  more  com- 
plete and  interesting.  Doubtless  the  reader  will  not 
be  inclined  to  find  much  fault  with  any  of  the  apparent 
digressions. 

In  the  score  of  chapters  into  which  the  essay  is 
divided,  attention  is  invited  to  numerous  more  or  lees 
remarkable  matters  pertaining  to  medicine,  most  of 
them  of  very  ancient  date,  and  some  of  practical  im- 
portance. Medical  mythology  is  treated  of  very  fully ; 
and,  on  this,  as  indeed  on  all  points,  the  results  of  the 
most  recent  archaeological  and  other  investigations  are 
given.  All  I  have  said  is  deserving,  I  believe,  of  the 
consideration  of  educated  physicians.^  "  The  wise  man 
will  seek  out  the  wisdom  of  all  the  ancients,"  says  the 
author  of  "  Ecclesiasticus,"  ^  one  who  had  the  tastes  of 
a  cultivated  medical  man. 

Although  the  essay  is  mainly  on  old  things,  I  ven- 
ture to  hold  that  it  contains  much  which  a  fairly  well- 
read  physician  will  find  fresh.  The  ground  gone  over 
has  been  little  trodden  before.  It  may  be  said,  as  Pliny 
did,  by  way  of  suggestion  of  difficulties  to  be  overcome, 

1  That  scholarly  old  writer,  Ashmole,  well  says:  "What  some  light 
braines  may  esteem  as  foolish  toyes,  deeper  judgments  can  and  will  value 
as  sound  and  serious  matter."    Theatrum  Chemicum  Britannicum,  1652. 

*  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxix,  1. 


vi  "Preface. 

when  he  sat  down  to  write  his  sketch  of  the  history  of 
the  art  of  medicine,  "  that  no  one  iias  hitherto  treated 
of  this  subject."^  But  just  as  Pliny  overlooked  what 
Celsus  had  done,  and  done  well,  so  in  this  case,  some 
worthy  author  ma}''  have  been  overlooked ;  still,  this  is 
improbable.  What  is  here  presented,  and  in  part  co- 
herently, is  gathered  from  manifold  sources.  I  have 
limited  my  references  as  much  as  possible  to  works  in 
the  English  language,  or  translations.  The  statements 
of  authors  are  given  in  their  own  words  ;  but  quotations 
of  wearisome  length  have  been  avoided. 

The  possibility  of  research  in  respect  to  the  themes 
treated  of,  and  allied  ones,  not  being  limited,  the  essay 
cannot  be  expected  to  be  either  perfect  or  complete. 
Whatever  its  merits  or  shortcomings  may  be,  how- 
ever, it  is  an  outcome  of  congenial  studies  pursued 
for  their  own  sake.  I  believe  it  contains  a  fund  of  in- 
formation which  deserves  to  be  widely  known.  The 
perusal  of  it  may,  at  least,  serve  to  excite  an  interest 
in  the  ample  literature  and  long  and  remarkable  history 
of  the  benevolent  and  learned  profession  of  medicine. 

T.  S.  S. 

*  Natural  History,  xxi. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 

OF 

THOMAS  S.  SOZINSKEY,  M.D.,  PH.D. 


Thomas  S.  Sozinskey,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  the  author  of 
this  interesting  little  volume,  was  born  in  Count}^  Derry, 
Ireland,  and  died  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  April  18, 
1889,  in  the  thirty-seventh  jesiY  of  his  age.  He  came  to 
this  country  when  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  settled  in 
Philadelphia.  Entering  the  University  of  Pennsjdvania 
some  years  later,  he  graduated  from  that  institution,  and 
afterward  began  the  study  of  medicine,  receiving  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  in  the  year  18t2.  He 
also  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  from 
the  same  faculty. 

Dr.  Sozinskey  immediately  entered  upon  his  career 
as  medical  practitioner  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  marriage  to  Miss  Abby  W.  Johnson,  a 
daughter  of  Luke  Johnson,  who  was  a  descendant  of 
one  of  the  founders  of  Germantown. 

Shortly  after  his  marriage  Dr.  Sozinskey  decided  to 
visit  Kansas  Cit}^,  partly  with  the  idea  of  locating  there ; 
but  after  a  sojourn  of  about  one  j^ear  in  the  West  he 
returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  began  again  the  practice 
of  his  chosen  profession,  succeeding  in  a  few  years  in 
building  up  a  very  extensive  and  lucrative  practice  in  the 
northwestern  section  of  the  city. 

Dr.  Sozinskey  was  a  man  highly  intellectual,  studious, 
and  scholarly.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  a 
number  of  leading  medical  journals,  as  well  as  the  author 
of  several  well-known  works,  among  which  may  be  men- 

(vii) 


viii     Biographical  Sketch  of  Thomas  S.  Sozinskey. 

tioiied  "  The  Care  and  Culture  of  Children."  Also,  a 
little  volume  entitled  "  Personal  Appearance  and  the 
Culture  of  Beauty." 

His  last  literary  effort,  "  Medical  Symbolism,"  which 
is  a  work  showing  a  vast  amount  of  research,  was  com- 
pleted just  before  his  death.  He  was  induced  to  under- 
take "  Medical  S3^mbolism  "  after  the  appearance  of  an 
article  bearing  this  title  in  the  Medical  and  Surgical 
BejDor^ter,  which  attracted  considerable  attention,  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

He  received  so  many  letters  from  men  prominent  in 
the  medical  profession,  suggesting  that  a  book  be  written 
upon  this  subject,  that  the  task  was  undertaken. 

By  his  untimely  death  three  small  children  became 
orphans,  the  mother  having  died  one  year  earlier,  after 
a  short  illness. 

His  readiness  to  attend  the  sick,  regardless  of  com- 
pensation, greatly  endeared  him  to  a  large  number  of 
the  poor. 

Containing,  as  it  does,  so  much  that  is  unique,  and 
in  a  field  not  often  touched  by  previous  writers,  "Medical 
Sjnnbolism  "  is  sure  to  find  appreciative  readers,  not 
only  among  the  fraternity  to  which  Dr.  Sozinskey  be- 
longed, but  among  the  scientific  and  literary  generally ; 
and,  from  the  encouragement  already  received,  the  pub- 
lishers feel  confident  of  a  large  and  wide-spread  demand 
for  this  little  volume.  E.  S.  P. 

Philadelphia,  October  27, 1890. 


COMMENDATORY  LETTERS. 


Philadelphia,  Jan,  24,  1884. 
Dr.  T.  S.  Sozinskey: 

Dear  Sir  : — Please  accept  my  thanks  for  your  paper 
on  "Medical  Symbolism,"  received  this  morning.  I 
have  read  it  with  great  interest,  more  especially  as  it  is 
in  the  direction  of  the  higher  education  of  phj^sicians. 
The  preponderance  of  the  so-called  practical  (empirical) 
in  medical  literature,  which  appeals  strongly  to  the  trade 
element  in  the  profession,  makes  such  a  contribution  all 
the  more  enjoyable. 

Yery  truly  yours, 

Frances  Emily  White. 

1427  N.  Sixteenth  St. 


Dr.  Sozinskey: 

Dear  Doctor  : — Many  thanks.  You  ought  to  enlarge 
the  article  to  a  little  book.  It  interested  me  greatly. 
In  a  has-relief  of  myself  b}^  St.  Gaudens,  New  York,  he 
has  set  beside  the  head  the  caduceus  and  twin  serpents 
as  symbolical;  at  all  events,  the}^  will  symbolize  my 
relation  to  snakes. 

Yours  truly, 

Weir  Mitchell. 

1524  Walxut  St.,  Phila. 

(ix) 


X  Commendatory  Letters. 

Philadelphia,  Jan.  23,  1884. 
Dr.  T.  S.  Sozinskey  : 

My  Dear  Doctor  : — I  write  to  thank  you  for  a  copy 
of  your  interesting  and  instructive  paper  on  "  Medical 
Sj-mbolism."  In  Fergusson,  on  "  Tree  and  Serpent 
Worship,"  which  you  quote,  you  can  readily  trace  the 
connection  between  the  emblems  of  religion  and  medi- 
cine. I  recognize  that,  as  priest  and  physician  were 
once  the  same  person,  medicine  is  yet  justly  termed 
"the  divine  art."  It  affords  me  much  pleasure  to  see 
your  studious  interest  in  your  profession. 

Yours  truly, 

Henry  H.  Smith. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Dedication, iii 

Preface, v 

Biographical  Sketch  of  T.  S.  Sozinskey,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  vii 

Commendatory  Letters, ix 

CHAPTER  I. 
Remarks  on  the  Meaning  of  Symbols,       ...        1 

CHAPTER  II. 
The  Serpentine  God  of  Medicine  at  Rome,    .        .        5 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  ^sculapian  Serpent, 13 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Epidaurian  Oracle, 17 

CHAPTER  V. 

ASCLEPIA  AND   THE   ASCLEPIADES, 23 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Grecian  God  of  Medicine,    .        .        ..        .        .31 

CHAPTER  VII. 
The  Image  of  ^sculapius, „      45 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  jEsculapian  Staff  and  Serpent,         ...      49 

(xi) 


xii  Table  of  Contents. 

CHAPTER  IX.  PAGE 

^SCULAPIUS   AND   THE   SeRPENT, 59 

CHAPTER  X. 
Various  Attributes  of  .^sculapius,  ....      83 

CHAPTER  XL 
Gods  Analogous  to  ^sculapius, 89 

CHAPTER  XII. 

The  Pine-Cone  as  an  Attribute  of  ^sculapius,  .      Ill 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Dibbara,  a  God  of  Pestilence, 119 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Hygeia,  the  Goddess  of  Health,         ....    133 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Medical  Talismans, 129 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Medical  Amulets, 137 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Pharmacists'  Symbols,     ....  .        .    149 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Miscellaneous  Medical  Symbols,       ....      155 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Medical  Symbolism  in  Practice,         ....      161 

CHAPTER  XX. 
The  Pentacle, 165 


MEDICAL  SYMBOLISM. 


CHAPTER  I. 

REMARKS    ON   THE   MEANING   OF   SYMBOLS. 

A  SYMBOL  is  an  illustration  of  a  thing  which,  to 
use  a  poetic  phrase,  is  "  not  what  it  seems."  When  a 
familiar  object,  or  figure  of  any  kind,  from  some  cause 
or  other,  has  attached  to  it  a  meaning  different  from  the 
obvious  and  ordinary  one,  it  is  symbolic.  Thus,  if  one 
take  a  popp3^-head  to  convey  the  idea  of  sleep,  it  is  a 
sj-mbol ;  one  may  regard  it  as  symbolic  of  sleep,  or,  if 
he  choose,  of  Hypnos  (Somnus),  the  god  of  sleep.  The 
illustration  on  the  next  page  will  afford  a  still  more  apt 
example.  To  the  eye,  it  appears  to  be  simply  a  partly 
coiled  serpent  resting  on  a  pedestal.  That  is,  in  truth, 
what  it  is.  But,  regarded  from  the  stand-point  of  the 
student  of  medical  symbolism,  it  has  another  and  very 
different  signification.  Before  such  a  figure  many  a 
human  being,  diseased  and  suffering,  has  bowed  in 
reverence  and  piously  offered  to  it  petitions  for  relief; 
to  man};^  a  noble  Greek  and  haughty  Roman,  indeed,  to 
generations  of  such,  it  was  a  god,  the  great  god  of  "  the 
divine  art,"  as  medicine  was  often  beautifully  called  in 
ancient  times.  The  serpent  is  the  most  important  of 
medical  symbols. 

In  any  composite  figure  the  elements  of  it  are  spoken 
of  as  attiHbutes ;  and  of  these  some  are  essential  and 
some  conventional.  The  essential  ones  onl}^  are,  strictly 
speaking,  symbols.     Thus,  in  a  representation  of  the 

>    A  (1) 


2  Medical  Symbolism. 

Goddess  of  Libert}^,  the  cap  is  not  a  symbol ;  it  is  a 
coiiA'entional  attribute.  Says  the  learned  and  distin- 
guished historian  of  ancient  art,  C.  0.  Miiller,  "  The 
essence  of  the  S3^mbol  consists  in  the  supposed  real 
connections  of  the  sign  witli  tiie  thing  signified."^  In 
some  authoritative  works,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  Fair- 
holt,^  the  serpent  in  medical  art  is  said  not  to  be  a 
symbol;  but  this  is  not  true  if  it  be  taken  to  represent 
the  god  of  medicine,  which,  as  I  have  alread}'-  stated, 
was  done  by  both  Greeks  and  Romans.  Evidentl^'^,  if 
taken  as  of  this  narrow  meaning,  there  are  not  many 
comprehensive  medical  symbols.  But  I  will  take  it  in 
a  wider  sense ;  I  will  take  it  to  mean 
any  mystic  figure  or  any  kind  of  at- 
tribute. In  doing  so  I  do  no  more 
than  Fairholt  holds  should  be  done. 
Referring  to  the  words  symbol,  image, 
and  allegorical  figure  as  well  as  at- 
tribute, he  sa3^s,  "  Their  shades  of 
"^  difference  are  so  slight  that  it  would 
Fic}-  !•— A  Medical  ]jq  most  convenient  to  reoard  them 
all  under  the  general  term  symboW^^ 
I  may  add  these  remarks  of  Tiele  :  "  A  symbol  is  a  simple 
or  complex  thought  clothed  in  a  sensuous  form.  A  myth 
is  a  phenomenon  of  nature  represented  as  the  act  of  a 
person.  Usually  symbols  originate  in  myths,  and  in 
every  case  mythology  is  antecedent  to  symbolism."* 
There  are  many  symbols,  however,  which  never  had 
anything  to  do  with  m3^ths,  as  will  become  evident 
later. 

*  Introduction  to  a  Scientific  System  of  Mythologj',  p.  197.    London, 
1844. 

'  A  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art.     liondon,  1854. 

*  Ibid.    Article,  "  Attribute." 

*  History  of  the  Egyptian  licligion,  p.  219,    London,  1882. 


Remarks  on  the  Meaning  of  Symbols.  3 

In  the  wide  sense  in  which  I  propose  to  nse  it, 
symbol  is  almost  or  quite  synon3^mous  with  emblem^  as 
popularly  used.  Mackenzie^  and  other  authorities, 
however,  state  that  the  word  emblem  is  properly  appli- 
cable only  to  a  mystic  object  or  figure  of  two  or  more 
parts.  Thus,  it  is  more  correct  to  speak  of  "  a  skull  and 
cross-bones  "  as  emblematic  than  symbolic  of  a  poison 
or  of  death.  Again,  while  a  serpent  might  properly  be 
called  a  S3^mbol,  one  in  connection  with  a  staff  is  an 
emblem.  In  this  restricted  sense,  emblem  is  closely 
allied  in  meaning  to  allegory.  But  in  an  allegorical 
representation  most  of  the  elements  of  it  are  apt  to  be 
symbolic,  and  beauty  of  the  whole  is  a  consideration. 
The  great  Epidaurian  representation  of  JEsculapius  is 
an  example.  A  simple  image  or  statue  is  essentially  a 
symbol. 

I  need  hardly  say  that  any  figure  may  or  may  not  be 
a  symbol ;  but  a  mere  figure  is  simply  a  representation 
of  any  object  regarded  as  void  of  any  other  than  its 
ordinary  meaning.  A  conventional  representation  of 
any  idea  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  figure.  In  this 
sense,  it  is  sometimes  called  an  ideograph. 

*  Royal  Masonic  Cyclopaedia.    London,  1877. 


CHAPTER   11. 

THE   SERPENTINE   GOD   OF   MEDICINE   AT   ROME. 

As  I  have  alread}^  intimated,  the  god  of  medicine — 
that  is,  jEsculapius^ — was  not  only  on  familiar  terms,  so 
to  speak,  with  the  serpent,  but  at  times  given  a  serpen- 
tine form.  Pausanias  expressly  informs  us  that  he  often 
appeared  in  such  singular  shape. ^  The  visitor  to 
imperial  Kome  about  two  thousand  3'ears  ago  saw  this 
divinity  in  reptilian  guise  an  object  of  high  regard  and 
worship.  It  is  worth  while  to  enter  into  a  short  study 
of  the  matter. 

Now,  at  the  outset,  I  may  observe  that  it  is  a  note- 
worthy fact  that  in  their  regard  for  medical  men  the 
early  Greeks  and  others  contrasted  remarkably  with  the 
Romans.  The  Greeks  would  seem  to  have  duly  prized 
the  class.  One  has  but  to  turn  to  Homer  to  find  evi- 
dence of  the  fact.  A  passage  suggested  by  Machaon's 
splendid  exercise  of  his  beneficent  art,  spoken  by  Idom- 
eneus  when  the  "  offspring  of  the  healing  god  "  was 
wounded  by  a  dart  fired  by  "  the  spouse  of  Helen  " 
(Paris),  and  "  trembling  Greece  for  her  physician  fear'd," 

runs : — 

"  A  wise  physician  skill'd  our  wounds  to  heal, 
Is  more  than  armies  to  the  public  weal."  ^ 

Cowper  translates    this    interesting   couplet    more 

literally  than  Pope  : — 

"  One  so  skill 'd  in  medicine  and  to  free 
The  inherent  barb  is  worth  a  multitude." 

*  The  Greek  form  of  the  name  is  Asclepios  or  Asklepios,  'Acr/c?i,?77rf6f. 
The  Latin  form  being  the  one  in  general  use,  I  will  adhere  to  it  in  this 
essay. 

^  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  iii,  p.  23.  '  Iliad,  xi. 

(5) 


6  Medical  SymhoHsm. 

This  is  a  very  noble  tribute  to  the  physician ;  in 
fact,  I  know  of  but  few  as  good,  among  them  being  the 
one  in  "  Ecclesiasticus  "  which  reads  :  "  Tiie  skill  of  the 
physician  shall  lift  up  his  head  and  in  the  sight  of  great 
men  he  shall  be  praised."^  The  latter  is  Hebrseo-Egyp- 
tian  in  origin,  and  its  date  is  about  two  hundred  years 
before  our  era.  The  earl}^  Romans  did  not  look  on 
doctors  with  any  such  favor. ^ 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  art  of  medicine  was 
never  very  enthusiastically  or  successfully  cultivated  by 
the  Romans.  It  was  not  until  a  comparatively  late  date 
that  medical  practitioners  existed  among  tliem  at  all. 
Plin}^  has  left  us  some  interesting  notes  on  the  matter. 
After  the  statement  that  many  nations  have  gotten  along 
without  ph3'sicians,  lie  says  :  "  Such,  for  instance,  was 
the  Roman  people  for  a  period  of  more  than  six  hun- 
dred years ;  a  people,  too,  which  has  never  shown  itself 
slow  to  adopt  all  useful  arts,  and  which  even  welcomed 
the  medical  art  with  avidity  until,  after  a  fair  experience 
of  it,  there  was  found  good  reason  to  condemn  it."^  He 
himself  was  not  a  great  friend  of  it. 

Cato,  who  died  in  the  year  of  the  city  of  Rome  605, 
said,  authoritatively :  "  They  (the  Greeks)  have  con- 
spired among  themselves  to  murder  all  barbarians  with 
their  medicine,  a  profession  which  the}-  exercise  for 
lucre,  in  order  that  they  may  win  our  confidence  and  de- 
spatch us  all  the  more  easily.  I  forbid  you  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  physicians."*  Notwithstanding  this, 
the  imperious  old  Roman  had  not  a  personal  dislike  to 
taking  medicine  ;  "  far  from  it,  by  Hercules,"  says  Pliny, 

*  Ch.  xxxviii,  v.  3. 

»  Cicero  would  appenr  to  have  duly  prized  the  physician.  I  recall  a 
passafje  of  his  to  the  effect  tliat  in  no  way  can  man  approach  so  near  to 
the  gods  as  by  conferring  health  on  his  fellows. 

»  Natural  History,  xxix,  7.  *  Ibid.,  xxix,  8. 


The  Serpentine  God  of  Medicine  at  Rome.  1 

"for  he  subjoins  an  account  of  the  medical  prescriptions 
b}^  the  aid  of  which  he  had  ensured  to  himself  and  his 
wife  a  ripe  old  age."  ^ 

It  appears  that  the  first  ph3^sician  who  exercised  his 
profession  at  Rome  was  "  Archagathus,  the  son  of  Ly- 
sanias,  who  came  over  from  Peloponnessus  in  the  je&r 
of  the  city  335."  He  was  kindly  welcomed,  and,  from 
his  special  line  of  practice,  was  called  "  Yulnerarius ;" 
but,  from  cruelty  displayed  "  in  cutting  and  searing  his 
patients,  he  brought  the  art  and  pli3\sicians  into  disre- 
pute. "^  It  is  this  experience  to  which  Pliny  refers  in 
the  foregoing  quotation. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Romans  never  re- 
garded medicine  as  an  art  appreciativelj^  They  have 
transmitted  to  posterity  little  that  is  original  and  valua- 
ble. Besides  what  is  found  in  Pliny's  work,  the  pro- 
duction of  Celsus  ^  is  about  all  that  calls  for  special 
mention,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  latter,  as  well  as  the 
former,  was  only  a  compiler.  Pliny  significant!}^  says  : 
"  The  art  of  medicine  at  the  present  time  even  teaches 
us  in  numerous  instances  to  have  recourse  to  the  oracles 
for  aid."  *     He  lived  from  23  to  79  a.d. 

The  Roman  people  had  no  special  god  of  medicine 
until  the  3'ear  292  B.C.  In  the  preceding  year,  the 
prevalence  of  a  pestilence  caused  much  consternation. 
This  led  to  a  consultation  of  the  Delphian  Oracle,  or, 
according  to  Livy  (see  page  9),  the  Sibylline  Books, 
as  to  what  should  be  done,  and  the  command  of  "  the 
Delphic  Oracle,  or  of  the  Sibylline  Books,"  to  use  the 
language  of  an  authoritative  work,^  was  given,  to  send 
an  embassy  to  procure  the  aid  of  the  Grecian  god  of 
healing,  JEsculapius. 

•  iSTatural  History,  xxix,  8.  *  Ibid. 

»  De  ^Nledicina.  ■*  Natural  History,  xxix.  l. 

*  Smitli'g  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology. 


8  Medical  Symbolism, 

The  story  of  the  bringing  of  JEsculapius  to  Rome, 
like  that  of  the  bringing  of  Cybele  from  Pessinus  in 
Galatia,  is  an  interesting  one,  and  must  be  known  if 
one  would  fully  appreciate  the  fact  of  the  god  being 
given  the  serpentine  form,  the  serpent  being  generally 
regarded  as  only  an  attribute  of  him  at  his  chief  seat, 
the  great  Epidaurian  Asclepion,  or  Temple  of  Health. 
It  is  graphically  told  by  Ovid. 

Ovid  begins  his  poem^  with  an  invocation  to  the 
"melodious  maids  of  Pindus;"  and,  addressing  them, 
continues : — 

"  Say,  whence  the  isle  which  Tiber  flows  around, 
Its  altars  with  a  heavenly  stranger  grac'd. 
And  in  our  shrines  the  God  of  Physic  placed  2" 

We  are  then  told  that — 

''  A  wasting  plague  infected  Latium's  skies. 
********* 
In  vain  were  human  remedies  apply'd. 
Weary 'd  with  death,  they  seek  celestial  aid, 
And  visit  Phoebus  in  his  Delphic  shade." 

The  reply  of  the  Oracle  is  this  : — 

"  Relief  must  be  implor'd  and  succour  won 
Not  from  Apollo,  but  Apollo's  son. 
My  son  to  Latium  borne  shall  biing  redress  ; 
Go  with  good  omens,  and  expect  success." 

The  Senate  appointed  an  embassy  to  carry  out  the 

order : — 

*'  Who  sail  to  Epidaurus'  neighbouring  land." 

To  it  the  god  (^Esculapius)  is  represented  as 
saying  :~ 

"  I  come  and  leave  my  shrine. 
This  serpent  view,  that  with  ambitious  play 
My  staff  encircles,  mark  him  every  way  ; 
His  form,  though  larger,  nobler,  I'll  assume, 
And,  changed  as  gods  should  be,  bring  aid  to  Rome." 

»  Metamorphosis,  xv.    Translation  by  Mr.  Welsted. 


The  Serpentine  God  of  Medicine  at  Rome,  9 

In  due  time  ''  the  salutary  serpent,^  the  god,  reached 

the  Island  of  the  Tiber  and  assumed  "  again  his  form 

divine  " : — 

"  And  now  no  more  the  drooping  city  mourns; 
Joy  is  again  restor'd  and  health  returns." 

There  is  little  or  no  reason  to  doubt  that  there  was 
really  a  formal  bringing  of  iEsculapius  to  Rome,  a  cos- 
mopolitan city  which,  indeed,  as  Gibbon  states  without 
much  exaggeration,  bestowed  its  freedom  "  on  all  the 
gods  of  m.ankind."  ^  Livy,  the  historian,  speaks  of  the 
matter  as  follows  : — 

"  The  many  prosperous  events  of  the  j^ear  (459) 
were  scarcely  sufficient  to  afford  consolation  for  one 
calamity,  a  pestilence,  which  afflicted  both  the  city  and 
country  and  caused  a  prodigious  mortality.  To  dis- 
cover what  end  or  what  remedy  was  appointed  by  the 
gods  for  that  calamit}^,  the  Books  were  consulted,  and 
there  it  was  found  that  ^sculapius  must  be  brought  to 
Rome  from  Epidaurus.  However,  as  the  Consuls  had 
full  employment  in  the  wars,  no  farther  steps  were  taken 
in  that  business  during  this  year,  except  the  performing 
of  a  supplication  to  ^sculapius  of  one  day's  conti- 
nence."^  Elsewhere*  he  says  that  the  god  was  brought 
the  following  year, — that  is,  a.u.c.  460,  or  292  B.C. 

The  Island  of  the  Tiber  {Insula  Tiber ina^  worn  Isola 
Tiberina),  the  "  inter  duos  pontes  "  of  the  early  centuries 
of  our  era,' where  ^sculapius  was  worshipped,  and  which 
was  sometimes  called  by  his  name  {Insula  jEsculapii), 
is  within  the  limits  of  the  cit}^  of  Rome.     According  to 

*  Although  there  is  little  evidence  to  show  that  serpent-worship  was 
indigenous  in  Rome,  Fergusson  holds  that  "  such  an  embassy  being  sent 
on  the  occasion  in  question  indicates  a  degree  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the 
people  which  could  only  have  arisen  from  previous  familiarity,"  Tree  and 
Serpent  "Worship,  p.  19. 

^  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  ii. 

»  Livy,  X,  47.  « Ibid.,  xxix,  11. 

1* 


10  Medical  Symbolism. 

tradition,  it  originated  from  alluvial  accumulations  with- 
in the  period  of  Roman  history'. ^  It  is  rather  remark- 
able that,  excepting-  the  one  at  the  mouth  {Insula  Sacra^ 
now  Isola  Sacr-a)^  there  is  no  other  along  the  whole 
course  of  the  famous  river.  It  is  ship-shaped,  and  quite 
small  in  size,  being  onl}^  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
length, 2  and  has  been  called  "  San  Bartolomeo,"  from  the 
church  which  has  long  occupied  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Temple  of  Health.^  Mr.  Davies  speaks  of  it  at  length 
in  his  interesting  book.  After  an  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  worship  of  JSsculapius  on  it,  he  says: — 

"  It  was  in  commemoration  of  this  event  that  the 
islaud  was  fashioned  in  the  form  of  a  ship.  Huge  blocks 
of  travertine  and  peperino  still  remain  about  the  prow 
(pointing  down  the  stream),  imitating  on  a  grand  scale 
the  forms  of  the  planks,  upon  which  are  chiseled  the 
figure  of  a  serpent  twined  around  a  rod,  and,  farther 
down,  the  head  of  an  ox.  A  temple  was  raised  to 
^sculapius,  in  which  his  statue  was  placed,  which  prob- 
ably stood  in  the  fore  part  of  the  simulated  vessel, 
hospitals  for  the  sick  occupying  the  sides,  a  tall  column 
or  obelisk  rising  in  the  midst  to  represent  a  mast. 
Temples  were  also  dedicated  to  Jupiter  and  Faun  us.* 
To  these  were  added  a  prison  in  the  days  of  Tiberius."^ 

*  In  his  Life  of  Publicola,  Plutarch  gives  an  interesting  account  of  its 
origin.  The  sacrifice  of  corn  and  trees  on  a  field  belonging  to  the  Tarquins, 
in  the  Campus  Martins,  hadmuchto  do  with  it.  These  being  cast  into  the 
river,  found  lodgment  at  shallows  where  the  island  is,  which  favored 
alluvial  accumulations.    See  also  Livy,  ii,  5. 

2  It  is  stated  by  Sir  George  Head  that  it  is  twelve  hundred  feet  in 
length  and  four  hundred  in  breadth.  Rome— A  Tour  of  Many  Days,  vol. 
iii,  p.  106.    London.  1849. 

»  A  hospital  established  by  Gregory  XIII  in  1581  and  several  resi- 
dences are  also  on  the  island. 

*  God  of  fields  and  shepherds.  The  Temple  of  ^sculapius  was  the 
most  ancient,  having  been  dedicated  A.u.c.  462. 

*  Pilgrimage  of  the  Tiber,  p.  63.  London,  1875.  Tiberius  ascended  the 
throne,  a.d.  14.    Plutarch,  writing  half  a  century  later,  says  of  the  island  : 


The  Serpentine  God  of  Medicine  at  Rome.         11 

Whether  the  establishment  of  the  worship  of  the  heal- 
ing divinity  on  the  island  at  Rome  was  brought  about 
by  chance,  or  deliberately,  is  not  very  clear.  Pliny 
would  seem  to  think  that  it  was  elsewhere  at  first  when 
he  says,  "  The  Temple  of  ^sculapius,  even  after  he  was 
received  as  a  divinity,  was  built  without  the  city  and 
afterward  on  an  island. "^  The  abhorrence  of  the  people 
for  physicians  is  given  as  the  reason  for  isolating  the 
institution.  The  noble  Romans  had  no  love  for  a  class 
that  made  a  trade  of  curing  the  sick,  enriching  them- 
selves off  the  misfortunes  of  their  fellow-men  ;  they  were 
shocked,  says  Pliny,  "  more  particularly^  that  man  should 
pay  so  dear  for  the  enjo3'ment  of  life."^  There  may  have 
been  other  and  better  reasons.  The  Greeks  themselves 
placed  their  asclepia  in  rural  and  often  insular  places. 
Thus,  the  great  Epidaurian  Asclepion  was  in  a  secluded 
vale,  and  two  very  celebrated  ones,  those  of  Cos  and 
Rhodes,  were,  as  the  names  indicate,  on  islands.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  there  are  excellent  sanitary  reasons 
for  placing  sanatory  institutions  in  the  country,  and 
especially  on  insular  sites.  It  will  be  a  long  step  in 
the  right  direction  when  we  somewhat  unwise  moderns 
cease  to  have  our  medical  institutions  within  the  built- 
up  parts  of  our  cities  and  towns,  and  treat  the  sick, 
especially  those  affected  with  contagious  diseases,  at  a 
distance  from  the  well. 

Devotion  to  the  serpentine  healer  appears  to  have 
lingered  long  in  sunny  Ital}^^     A  bronze  serpent  in  the 

'•It  is  now  sacred  to  relig;ious  uses."  Life  of  Publicola.  He  states  that 
several  temples  and  porticoes  had  been  built  on  it,  but  makes  no  reference 
to  a  prison, 

*  Natural  History,  xxix,  8.  ^  Ibid. 

3  The  Very  Reverend  Dr.  Jeremiah  Donovan  states,  in  his  learned 
work,  that  "the  temple  (of  ^sculapius)  being  recorded  bytheRegionaries 
must  have  existed  in  the  fifth  century."  Rome,  Ancient  and  Modern,  and 
its  Environs,  vol.  iv,  p.  431.    Rome,  1842. 


12  Medical  Symbolism. 

basilica  of  St.  Ambrose  was  worshipped  as  late  as  the 
3^ear  1001,  but  the  precise  import  of  it  is  not  known. 
Referring  to  it,  De  Gubernatis  says :  "  Some  sa}^  that  it 
was  the  serpent  of  ^sculapius,  others  that  of  Moses, 
others  that  it  was  an  imao^e  of  Christ.  For  us  it  is  enouo-h 
to  remark  here  that  it  was  a  mytliical  serpent  before 
which  Milanese  mothers  brought  their  children  when 
they  suffered  from  worms  in  order  to  relieve  them,  as 
we  learn  from  the  depositions  of  the  visit  of  San  Carlo 
Borromeo  to  this  basilica."^  San  Carlo  suppressed  the 
superstitious  practice.'^ 

>  Zoological  Mythology,  or  Legends  of  Animals,  vol.  i,  p.  416.  London 
and  New  York,  1872. 

^  It  appears  that  the  serpent  has  still  devotees  in  Italy.  It  is  said  that 
what  is  called  a  snake  festival  is  held  once  a  year  in  a  little  mountain- 
church  near  Naples.  Those  attending  carry  snakes  around  their  necks, 
arms,  or  waists.  The  purpose  of  the  festival  is  to  preserve  the  partici- 
pants from  poison  and  sudden  death,  and  to  bring  them  good  fortune. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   iESCULAPIAN   SERPENT. 

It  is  not  to  be  presumed  that  many  in  our  day 
would  seriously  believe  that  JEsculaj^ius  assumed  the 
form  of  a  large  serpent,  in  the  famous  legendary  voyage 
to  Rome ;  but  it  is  hardly  to  be  doubted,  as  I  have 
already  remarked,  that  there  was  actually  a  serpent 
brought  from  Epidaurus  on  the  occasion.  It  is  very 
probable  that  the  Roman  embassy  deliberately  brought 
one  with  them  ;  still,  the  coming  of  the  reptile  on  board 
the  ship  may  have  been  accidental.  ^  The  latter  was  the 
case,  according  to  one  tradition.  At  any  rate,  there  was 
suflScient  ground  on  which  a  superstitious  people  could 
easily  construct  a  mj'thical  superstructure  to  please 
their  fancy. 

The  assumption  of  the  form  of  a  serpent  by  the  god 
of  medicine  was  not  an  extraordinary  thing,  according 
to  ancient  beliefs.  Plenty  of  instances  might  be  cited. 
I  may  give  one.  Alexander  the  Great  was  believed  by 
many  to  have  been  not  the  son  of  Philip,  but  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  who  appeared  to  Olympias  in  reptilian  shape. 
Plutarch  tells  the  story.  It  is  amusingly  related  of 
Philip  that"  he  lost  one  of  his  eyes  as  he  applied  it  to 
the  chinl^of  the  door,  when  he  saw  the  god,  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  in  his  wife's  embraces. "^  The  ability  to 
take  on  at  pleasure  any  animal  or  other  form  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  distinguishing  prerogatives  of 
divinity. 

*  The  port  of  Epidaurus  not  being  within  several  miles  of  the  grove 
of  ^sculapius,  it  is  very  improbable  that  a  serpent  found  its  own  way 
from  the  latter  to  the  Roman  ship. 

'  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men. 

(13) 


14  Medical  Symbolism. 

Taking  it  for  granted,  then,  that  there  was  really  a 
serpent  transferred  from  Epidauriis  to  Rome,  which 
was  regarded  as  JEsculapius,  the  interesting  question 
arises,  of  what  species  was  it?  A  very  conclusive 
answer  maj^  be  given. 

It  is  known  that  at  the  Epidaurian  Asclepion  a 
species  of  serpent  existed  in  considerable  numbers  by 
permission.  After  stating  that  all  serpents,  "  but  par- 
ticularly those  of  a  more  yellow  color,  are  considered  as 
sacred  to  ^sculapius,  and  are  gentle  and  harmless 
toward  men,"  Pausanias  says :  "  They  are  alone  nour- 
ished in  the  land  of  the  Epidaurians ;  and  I  find  that 
the  same  circumstance  takes  place  in  other  regions."^ 
f^^^s.      Here,   then,   is    proof  that 


there  was  a  species  of  ser- 
pent which  deserved  to  be 
characterized  as  ^scula- 
pian. 

Fig.  2.— The  ^sculapian  ser-  It  being  reasonably  cer- 
tain that  only  one  kind  of 
serpent  "  was  nourished  in  the  land  of  the  Epidaurians," 
and  regarded  as  sacred  to  ^sculapius,  the  following 
passage  from  Pliny  is  interesting :  "  The  ^sculapian 
snake  was  first  brought  to  Rome  from  Epidaurus,  but 
at  the  present  day  it  is  very  commonly  reared,  in  our 
houses  even ;  so  mucii  so,  indeed,  that,  if  the  breed  were 
not  kept  down  by  the  frequent  conflagrations,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  make  head  against  the  rapid  increase 
of  them. "2  It  is  evident  from  this  statement  that  the 
serpent  in  question  was  not  venomous,  that  its  presence 
was  prized,  and  that  people  would  not  wilfully  kill  it. 
Now,  a  pretty  species  of  oviparous,  non-venomous 

•  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  213.    London,  1794. 
^  Natural  History,  xxix,  23. 


The  ^aculapian  Serpent.  15 

serpent,  still  common  in  Italy,  is  believed  to  be  the 
"  ^-Esculapian  snake  "  of  Pliny,  called  Paroas  by  Greek 
writers.^  I  have  examined  a  number  of  specimens. 
Several  are  to  be  seen  in  the  museum  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  It  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Sliaw  under  the  name  of  Coluber  jEscuIapii, 
but  it  is  now  often  called  Elaphis  j^sculapii.  A  cut  of  It 
is  given  in  Brehm's  great  popular  work,^  which  is  very 
good,  except  that  it  glides  one  the  impression  that  the  ani- 
mal is  decidedly  large.  The  iEsculapian  serpent  is  com- 
paratively small,  being  from  three  to  four  and  one-half  feet 
in  length,  and  about  as  thick  as  a  stout  walking-cane. 
It  is  orange-brown  above,  or,  as  Shaw  puts  it,  "  rufous 
colour  on  the  upper  parts,  more  or  less  deep  in  different  in- 
dividuals."^  Beneathit  isof  astrawcolor.  The  scales  of 
the  back  are  oval  and  carinated,  and  those  of  the  sides  are 
smooth.  The  tapering  tail  measures  about  nine  inches. 
Movement  takes  place  through  vertical  waves  or  swell- 
ings. It  is  very  active  and  can  climb  trees  with  facility. 
When  attacked  it  will  defend  itself;  but  it  is  by  nature 
gentle  and  is  easily  tamed. 

In  his  brief  description  of  it,  Cuvier  follows  Shaw. 
He  adds  :  "  It  is  that  which  the  ancients  have  repre- 
sented in  their  statues  of  JEsculapius  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  serpent  of  Epidaurus  was  of  this  species.  (The 
Coluber  ^scnlapii  of  Linnaeus*  is  of  a  totally  different 
species,  and  belongs  to  America.)"^ 

The  ^sculapian  serpent  is  closely  related  to  the 
ringed  snake  {NatiHx  torquata),  the  only  British  member 

*  As  by  Aristophanes  in  Plutus.   In  Liddell  &  Scott's  Lexicon  Udpuac 
is  defined  to  be  "a  reddisb-brown  snake  sacred  to  ^sculapius." 

^  Tbierleben.   Grosse  Auflage.  DritteAbtbeilung.   Erster  Band.   Seite 
348.    Leipzig,  1878. 

'  General  Zoology,  part  11,  p.  452,    London,  1802. 

*  CoroneUa  venustrissinia.  *  Animal  Kingdom,  vol.  ix,  p.  263. 


16  Medical  Symbolism. 

of  the  famil}^ ;  and  the  common  bhick  snake  (Coluber  con- 
strictor') of  America  is  of  tlie  same  genus  ;  but  it  should 
not  be  classed,  as  was  done  by  Linnaeus,  with  the  de- 
cidedly venomous  viperine  serpent,  the  Viper  communis^ 
or  Pelias  berus,  of  which  Figuier  says  :  "  It  is  not  improb- 
able that  it  is  the  echis  {^X^^)  ^^  Aristotle  and  the  vipera 
of  Yirgil,  as  it  is  the  manasso  of  the  Italians,  the  adder 
of  the  country-people  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  the 
vipere  of  France.  It  is  found  in  all  these  countries  and 
in  Europe  generally."^ 

In  an  article  contributed  to  a  medical  journal^  I  have 
said,  in  reference  to  the  ^sculapian  serpent,  that  it  is 
the  one  "  which  should  always  be  shown  in  medical 
sjanbolism."  This  would  hardly  be  questioned  by 
many ;  yet  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  the  restriction 
is  too  exclusive.  Another  species  of  coluber,  the 
urseus,  or  asp,  has  played  a  significant  role,  as  a  symbol 
of  life  and  healing,  especially  in  Egypt,  as  will  be  seen 
later.  Our  medical  traditions,  however,  being  mainly 
derived  from  the  Greeks,  it  would  therefore  seem  but 
right  that  we  should  confine  ourselves  very  exclusively 
to  the  symbolism  in  use  by  them. 

*  Reptiles  and  Birds,  p.  92.    New  York,  1870. 

^  The  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter  for  January  5th  and  12th,  1884. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE   EPIDAURIAN   ORACLE. 

In  speaking  o£  the  god  of  medicine  at  Rome,  men- 
tion was  made  of  Epidaurns,  the  original  great  seat  of 
worship  of  ^sculapiiis.  In  the  Pelopounesian  place  of 
that  name,  in  the  district  of  Argolis,  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Saronic  Gulf,  I  will  now  pause  a  while  ;  for 
here  is  a  spot  of  earth  of  special  interest,  dearer  than 
Salerno,  or  even  Cos,  to  every  lover  of  the  annals,  his- 
torical and  legendar}--,  of  the  healing  art. 

Very  different  is  Epidaurus  now  from  what  it  was  in 
other  days  ;  there  has  been  a  change,  and  for  the  worse. 
Here  was  once  the  scene  of  teeming  life ;  the  home  of  a 
people  of  culture  and  renown.  It  is  not  so  at  present. 
As  with  man}^  other  parts  of  Greece,  time  has  dealt 
harshly  with  Epidaurus.  But  for  the  ruins  and  the 
imperishable  records  we  have  of  them,  one  could  find 
very  little  there  worthy  of  much  attention. 

It  is  chiefly  in  the  work  of  Pausanias,  before  men- 
tioned, that  the  great  medical  institution  of  Epidaurus, 
the  ^sculapian  Temple,  with  its  auxiliaries,  survives. 
This  observing  and  inquisitiv^e  old  Greek  traveler  has  left 
an  interesting  account  of  it.  He  lived  in  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  era. 

The  ruins  have  been  carefully  studied  and  described 
by  Mr.  Leake.  ^ 

Under  a  commission  from  the  Archaeological  Society 
of  Athens,  Mr.  P.  Kavvadias,  in  1881  and  forward  to 
the  present  time  (1885),  has  been  making  exploratory 

*  Travels  in  the  Morea,  vol.  ii.    London,  1830. 

A^  (17) 


18  Medical  Symbolism. 

excavations,  for  full  accounts  of  which  the  "  Proceedings 
of  tlie  Society  "  must  be  consulted. ^ 

Although  the  Asclepion  was  not  within  the  town  of 
Epidaurus,  it  was  generally  spoken  of  as  part  and  parcel 
of  the  latter.  Thus,  Strabo  says :  "  Epidaurus  was  a 
distinguished  cit}^,  remarkable  particularly  on  account 
of  the  fame  of  jEsculapius,  who  was  supposed  to  cure 
ever}"  kind  of  disease,  and  wliose  temple  is  crowded  con- 
stantly with  sick  persons,  and  its  walls  covered  with 
votive  tablets,  which  are  hung  thereon  and  contain 
accounts  of  the  cures  in  the  same  manner  as  is  practiced 
at  Cos  and  at  Tricca."^  In  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
the  town  was  regarded  as  "  little  more  than  the  harbor  "^ 
of  the  ^sculapian  Oracle.  Still,  at  one  time  it  was  of 
considerable  importance.  Pausanias  speaks  favorably 
of  it.  In  it  there  were  statues  of -^sculapius  and  his 
reputed  wife,  Epione,  and  of  Diana,  Yenus,  and  others. 
There  were  public  accommodations  for  persons  d3'ing 
and  lying-in  women.  This  was  necessary,  because  births 
and  deaths  were  not  allowed  to  occur  within  the  Sacred 
Grove.  The  exclusion  was,  according  to  Pausanias, 
"  agreeable  to  a  law  which  is  established  in  the  island 
of  Delos."4 

Epidaurus  was  open  to  intercourse  with  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  other  peoples.  Its  citizens  were  enterprising. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  they  colonized  the  island 
of  Cos. 

*  Mr.  Thos.  W.  Ludlow,  of  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  has  two  interesting  letters 
on  the  subject  in  the  New  York  Nation,  September  28,  1882,  and  February 
15,  1883.  No  comprehensive  account  has  as  yet  appeared  in  either  the  Enor. 
lish,  French,  or  German  lanpjun^e.  An  interesting  article  on  "-^Esculapia 
as  Revealed  by  Inscriptions,"  by  Prof.  A.  (\  Merriain,  in  Gaillard's  Medical 
Journal  for  May,  188.5,  partly  meets  the  want. 

'  (ieography,  viii.    Translation  in  Bohn's  Library. 

'  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geop^raphy. 

*  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  212. 


The  Epidauriaii  Oracle.  19 

Under  the  name  of  Pidliavro  the  ancient  town  re- 
mains in  existence ;  but  it  is  a  mere  hamlet  of  a  few 
dozen  families,  most  of  which  are  engaged  in  raising 
vegetables  for  the  Athenian  market. 

Proceeding  in  a  southwesterl}^  direction  from  the  site 
of  Epidaurus,  one  comes,  after  a  journey  of  about  five 
Roman  miles,  to  the  location  of  the  famous  Epidaurian 
Oracle  of  ^sculapius.  It  is  a  little  vale,  bordered 
almost  all  around  with  shrubbery -clad  hills,  notable 
among  which  are  Mounts  Titthium,  C3mortium,  and 
Coryphaeus,  the  first  and  second  to  the  north,  and  the 
third  to  the  southeast.  At  a  little  distance  down  it, 
flowing  westerly  and  emptying  into  the  river  of  Lessa, 
is  a  rivulet  formed  b}^  two  main  branches,  one  of  which 
springs  from  about  Mount  Coryphaeus  and  traverses 
the  sacred  'A/lCog,  or  Grove. 

To  the  Sacred  Grove,  the  name  of  Hierum,  or,  rather, 
Sto  Hieron,!  a  synonym,  is  applied.  It  is  less  than  a 
mile  in  circumference.  Within  it  are  found  remains  of 
most  of  the  structures  which  it  formerl^^  contained.  In 
the  centre  stood  the  Temple,  or  Sanctuar^^of  JEsculapius  ; 
in  the  southeast,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Coryphseus,  the 
theatre, 2  which  afforded  accommodation  for  twelve  thou- 
sand people,  and  which  is  one  of  the  finest  ruins  of  ancient 
Grecian  buildings  ;  and  southwest  of  the  temple  was  the 
place  devoted  to  athletic  games,  the  Stadium,  to  the  north 
of  which  were  the  Cistrum  and  the  Tholus,  or  circular 
cell,  about  thirty  feet  in  circumference,  which  contained 
paintings  and  other  works  of  art,  and  probably  served 
as  a  place  of  reunion  of  the  officials  of  the  sanctuary, 

^  'Eto  'lepov,  sacred  place. 

^  Mr,  Ludlow  says,  in  one  of  his  letters,  and  also  informs  me  privately, 
that  Mr.  Kavvadias  has  found  the  theatre  to  be  without  the  peribolus  of 
the  Sacred  Grove.  Following  Pausanias,  Mr.  Leake  states  it  to  be  within 
the  enclosure. 


20  Medical  Symbolism, 

and  for  certain  sacrifices  and  ceremonies.  Water- 
pipes  have  been  unearthed ;  and  there  are  remnants  of 
the  peribolus,  or  enclosure,  which,  according  to  Lealve, 
however,  was  present  only  on  two  sides,  the  steep  hills 
answering  the  purpose  on  the  others.  The  somewhat 
remarkable  state  of  preservation  of  these  ruins  is  largely 
due  to  the  seclusion  of  the  place. 

Of  course,  the  most  notable  building  within  the 
sacred  grounds  was  the  Temple,^  This  was  the  abode 
of  the  god ;  here  was  his  oracle.  His  statue  was  of 
great  splendor  and  highlj'^  renowned.  It  was  formed  of 
ivory  and  gold — chryselephantine — and  was  by  Thras^^- 
medes,  of  Parus.  ^sculapius  was  represented  as  a 
man  somewhat  advanced  in  life,  but  of  attractive  pres- 
ence, seated  on  a  throne.  His  hair  and  beard  were 
given  long,  perhaps  too  long  for  an  ideal  physician. ^  In 
his  left  hand  he  held  a  staff,  and  the  other  he  held  over 
the  head  of  a  serpent.  At  his  feet  was  the  figure  of  a 
dog.  On  the  throne  were  wrought  illustrations  of  the 
works  of  the  Argive  heroes.  Bellerophon  was  shown 
in  the  act  of  slaying  the  Chimsera,  and  Perseus  cutting 
off  the  head  of  Medusa. 

Besides  the  temple,  the  theatre,  gymnasium,  and 
other  buildings  mentioned  above,  there  were  still  others 
to  meet  the  manifold  needs  of  the  numerous  visitors. 
As  those  who  came  to  consult  the  oracle  remained  a  night 
or  longer,  there  must  have  been  an  extensive  dormitor}^ 
It  is  referred  to  by  Pausanias.^     Those,  however,  who 

*  There  is  reason  to  hope  that  Mr.  Kawadias  will  make  valuable  dis- 
coveries in  excavatinpc  its  ruins. 

'  Anytliing  about  a  physician  which  might  be  the  means  of  conveying 
disease  from  one  to  another  is  seriously  objectionable.  Woolen  material 
is  not  the  proper  thing  in  the  outside  clothing,  and  one  attending  cases  of 
contagious  diseases  should  not  wear  gloves,  unless  he  is  wont  to  wash  his 
hands  well  after  each  visit, 

•  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  213. 


The  EjJidaurian  Oracle.  21 

approached  the  god,  always,  I  believe,  passed  the  night 
in  the  sanctuary. 

When  at  the  height  of  its  glory  the  Hiernm  was 
surel}^  a  place  full  of  life.  Being  the  most  famous  sana- 
torj'  retreat,  multitudes  flocked  to  it  from  all  parts  of 
Greece  and  beyond.  Many  who  came  were,  doubtless, 
invalids,  but  likely  far  more  could  not  be  classed  as 
such.  In  fact,  this  ^sculapian  Grove,  although  mainly 
a  medical  institution,  a  sort  of  hospital,  might  reason- 
ably be  taken  as  a  prototype  of  modern  popular  health 
resorts. 

The  glor}^  of  the  Epidaurian  Oracle  was  not  short- 
lived. In  the  year  292  B.C.,  the  time  when  the  Roman 
embassy  paid  the  historic  visit,  it  was  very  great ;  and 
five  centuries  later — that  is,  in  the  time  of  Pausanias — 
it  had  not  passed  away ;  the  worship  of  the  serpentine 
divinity  had  not  then  ceased. 

With  years  the  oracle  accumulated  riches,  so  that  it 
became  noted  for  its  treasures.  When,  in  the  year  167 
B.C.,  it  was  visited  by  L.  ^milius  Paulus,  after  his  con- 
quest of  Macedonia,  it  was  rich  in  gifts  presented  by 
those  who  had  obtained  relief  there  from  their  afflic- 
tions. A  century  and  a  half  later  many  of  the  valuable 
oflerings  had  disappeared. 

The  visitors  to  the  great  oracle  in  search  of  health 
placed  themselves  under  the  care  of  the  asclepiades,  or 
disciples  of  the  god.  A  special  course  of  regimen 
(treatment)  was  followed.  It  is  said  that  it  was  directed 
by  JEsculapius,  through  dreams, — not  necessarily  a 
truth.  The  plan  pursued  was  more  or  less  scientific 
and  free  from  superstition.  Mr.  Leake  rather  ungra- 
ciously remarks  that  the  advisors,  being  "  equally  dex- 
terous as  priests  and  physicians,  provided  themselves 
with  resources  in  either  capacit}^,  which  they  could  turn 


22  Medical  Symbolism. 

to  the  benefit  of  their  patients'  infirmities  and  their  own 
profit."  1  The  rules  were  decidedly  strict.  Records  of 
patients  were  preserved,  and  the  tablets  on  which  they 
were  placed  were  hung  up  in  the  temple  and  elsewhere. 
Some  of  those  surviving  from  the  stelae,  mentioned  by 
Pausanias,^  have  been  unearthed  recently  by  Mr.  Kav- 
vadias.  They  are  mostly  statements  of  miraculous 
cures.  ^ 

Famous  and  immensely  popular  as  the  Epidaurian 
Oracle  was,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  had  notable  natu- 
ral advantages  in  its  favor.  The  site  was  not  one  of  the 
best,  being  low  and  hill-bounded, — conditions  closely  re- 
lated to  unhealthy  states  of  humidity  and  heat  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  supply  of  water  was  not  good,  de- 
pendence having  to  be  placed  at  times  on  cisterns.  The 
locations  of  many  other,  but  less  noted,  asclepia,  were 
certainly  far  more  sanatory.  At  Cos  there  was  pure, 
mild  sea-air;  and,  of  those  in  the  mountains  or  by 
fountains,  each  had  one  or  more  special  natural  attrac- 
tions. Indeed,  there  could  seemingly  be  few  much 
worse  sites  than  this  close  little  Epidaurian  valley,  with- 
out even  a  mineral  spring,  or,  in  fact,  a  good  spring  of 
ordinary  water  to  recommend  it.  But,  greater  than  an}'- 
one,  or  all  climatic  or  other  influences  in  power  to  at- 
tract the  multitude,  was  the  belief  that  at  his  birth-place 
and  primary  seat  and  oracle  the  influence  of  the  god  of 
medicine  could  be  most  efiectivel>'  brought  to  bear  to 
remove  disease  and  restore  health.  As  in  this  case,  a 
pleasing  superstition  may  work  wonders. 

'  Travels  in  Morea,  vol.  ii,  p.  428.  The  .ZE-;culapian  priest  is  not  repre- 
sented as  an  honest  personage  in  the  "Plutus"  of  Aristophanes.  He 
stealthily  gathers  the  cakes  from  the  altars  and  "consecrates  these  into 
a  sack." 

'  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  27. 

»  See  note  in  succeeding  chapter. 


CHAPTER  y. 

ASCLEPIA  AND  THE  ASCLEPIADES. 

Many  asclepia,  or  temples  of  health,  were  in  time 
established  throughout  Greece  and  her  colonies  and  else- 
where. A  recent  writer  states  that  at  least  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  are  known  "  to  have  existed  in  an- 
tiquit}^ ;  so  that  every  town  of  importance  must  have  had 
its  sanctuary. "1  In  success  and  length  of  existence  the}^, 
of  course,  varied  greatly.  The  one  at  Epidaurus  has 
been  spoken  of,  and  others  of  great  celebrity  were  those 
of  Tricca,  Cnidus,  and  Cos,  to  say  nothing  of  some  only 
a  little  less  deserving  of  mention,  such  as  those  at 
Rhodes,  Pergamus,  Carthage,  Athens,^  and  Rome. 

The  asclepion  at  Tricca,  in  Thessaly,  was  probably 
started  by  the  sons  of  ^sculapius,  Machaon  and  Poda- 
lirius.  At  any  rate,  according  to  Homer,  they  were 
attendants  there.  This  was  enough  to  bring  it  into  re- 
pute, but  its  situation  in  the  mountains  was  much  in  its 
favor  as  a  popular  sanator^^  resort. 

The  Coan  and  Cnidian  asclepia  were  favorably 
located  ;  the  former  on  the  island  of  the  name,  which 
Pliny  speaks  of  as  "  flourishing  and  powerful  in  the 
highest  degree  and  consecrated  to  ^sculapius,"^  and 
the  latter  not  far  distant,  on  a  site  decidedl3^  maritime, 
in  Asia  Minor.  These  temples  were  both  very  distin- 
guished, and  a  degree  of  rivalry  prevailed  between  them. 

*  Professor  A.  C.  Merriam,  in  Gaillard's  Medical  Journal,  May,  1885. 

^  Professor  Merriam's  article  ;  also  L' Asclepieion  d' Atbenes,  by  Paul 
Girard,  Paris,  1882.  An  interesting  little  bool?,  in  wbich  much  may  be 
learned  about  asclepia  and  the  asclepiades.  The  Athenian  asclejiion  was 
quite  famous,  and  existed  until  beyond  the  fifth  centurj-. 

*  Natural  History,  xxii,  2. 

(23) 


24  Medical  Symbolism. 

In  them  there  was  inidonbtedly  much  highly  creditable 
medical  knowledge  in  exercise.  The  same  was  prob- 
ably the  case  in  most,  or  perhaps  all,  others,  especially 
in  later  times  ;  but  it  is  in  respect  to  those  only  that  we 
have  indubitable  evidence  of  the  fact.  Of  the  two 
schools,  the  adherents  of  the  Cnidian  paid  special  atten- 
tion to  the  symptoms  of  individual  cases,  and  avoided, 
as  much  as  possible,  powerful  cathartics,  bleeding,  and 
other  active  means  of  cure. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  success  of  the  various 
asclepia,  institutions  which  were  finally  blotted  out  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century  by  Constantine,  the 
first  Christian  emperor, ^  that  of  Cos  was  destined  to 
make  the  greatest  impress  on  the  medicine  of  the  future. 
It  was  the  good  fortune  of  this  institution  to  have  in 
connection  with  it,  at  the  acme  of  its  career,  a  great 
author  as  well  as  physician.  Hippocrates,  a  native  of 
the  island,  rendered  the  fame  of  the  Coan  school  im- 
perishable, and  gave  to  his  fellow-men  throughout  the 
world,  in  all  time  to  come,  a  legacy  of  incalculable 
value.  Through  this  early  and  great  medical  writer  his 
alma  mater  has  been  made,  in  a  manner,  that  of  the 
medical  man  of  all  ages.  From  Cos  sprang  forth  at  the 
touch  of  a  humble  man,  afterward  called  appreciatively 
"the  divine  old  man,"  a  mass  of  medical  knowledge, 
wonderfully  pure  and  good,  which  constitutes  the  main 
body  of  the  real  medical  science  of  our  own  (\Ky. 

An    asclepion^   consisted    essentially  of  a  building 

•  In  reference  to  the  asclepia  or  asclepions,  as  he  calls  them,  Draper 
says  :  "  An  edict  of  Constantine  suppressed  those  establishments."  And 
again  :  "The  asclepion  of  Cnidus  conthiued  until  the  time  of  Constantine, 
when  it  was  destroyed  along  with  many  other  pagan  establishments." 
History  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  pp.  386  and  397. 
Revised  edition.    New  York,  1876. 

*  Asclepion  is  from  Asclepios,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  the  god 
of  medicine.  In  Greek  it  is  acK?LTj7Tidov,  meaning  Temple  of  Asclepios. 
./Esculapium  is  of  similar  meaning. 


Asclepia  and  the  Asclepiades.  25 

witli  a  more  or  less  b3'gienical  site,  usuall}^  in  the  country 
and  near  a  fountain,^  sometimes  a  mineral  one,  in  which 
the  arts  of  healing  were  practiced  by  priests  or  disciples 
of  -^sculapius,  called  asclepiades.  In  all,  the  influence 
of  the  god  was  generally  believed  to  be  an  essential 
factor;  and  hence  in  each  an  image  of  him  was  to  be 
found.  But  the  fully-equipped  institution  had  many 
appliances,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  account  given  of 
the  one  at  Epidaurus.  Arrangements  for  exercises, 
baths,  and  other  means  which  were  brought  to  bear  to 
restore  people  to  health  were  duly  provided  and  were 
in  many  instances  elaborate. 

The  asclepiades  claimed  that  they  were  descended 
directly  from  the  god  of  whom  they  were  the  disciples. 
They  were  not,  at  any  time,  mere  priests  ;  that  is,  min- 
isters of  religion.  Indeed,  it  has  been  asserted  that 
"  there  is  no  sign  in  the  Homeric  poems  of  the  subordi- 
nation of  medicine  to  religion. "^ 

The  asclepiades  constituted  a  special  class,  and 
they  were  oath-bound  to  preserve  the  m3^steries  of  the 
art  from  the  uuinitiated.  The  oath  is  preserved  in  the 
Hippocratic  Collection,^  and  is  usually  called  by  his 
name.  It  begins  thus  :  "  I  swear  by  Apollo,  the  physi- 
cian, and  ^sculapius,  and  Health,  and  All-Hcal,*  and 
all  the  gods  and  goddesses  that,  according  to  my 
ability  and  judgment,  I  will  keep  this  oath  and  this 

*  Vitruvius,  who  flourished  in  the  first  century  before  our  era,  ex- 
presses the  opinion  that  "natural  consistency"  suggests  the  selection  of 
situations  affording  the  advantages  of  "salubrious  air  and  water"  for 
"temples  erected  to  ^aEsculapius,  to  the  goddess  of  health,  and  such  other 
divinities  as  possess  the  power  of  curing  diseases."  It  materially  helped 
the  divinities.  See  second  edition  of  his  work  on  Architecture,  p.  11,  by 
Joseph  Swift.    London,  1860. 

*  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  ninth  edition. 

'  See  William  Adams'  edition  of  the  Genuine  Works  of  Hippocrates. 
Two  volumes.    London,  1849. 

*  Hygeia  and  Panacea,  both  daughters  of  -Slsculapius. 

2    B 


26  Medical  Symbolism. 

stipiibition."  In  it  occurs  this  passage  :  "  I  will  follow 
that  S3^stem  of  regimen^  which,  according  to  my  ability 
and  judgment,  I  consider  for  tlie  benefit  of  my  patients, 
and  abstain  from  whatever  is  deleterious  and  mischiev- 
ous." Here  is  another:  "With  purity  and  with  holi- 
ness I  will  pass  my  life  and  practice  my  art."  Cutting 
for  the  stone  is  left  to  those  who  make  a  special  business 
of  it.  What  is  learned  about  patients,  in  the  exercise 
of  the  art,  which  should  be  kept  secret  is  not  to  be 
divulged.  Mr.  Adams  well  saj^s  that  it  is  most  honor- 
able to  the  profession  that  so  ancient  a  document  per- 
taining to  it  as  this,  "instead  of  displaying  narrow- 
minded  and  exclusive  selfishness,  inculcates  a  generous 
line  of  conduct,  and  enjoins  an  observance  of  tlie  rules 
of  propriety  and  of  the  laws  of  domestic  morality."^ 

It  has  been  said,  in  a  learned  article^  on  ancient 
medicine,  that  "  the  asclepiadse  of  Greece  were  the  true 
originators  "  of  scientific  medicine.  This  claim  might 
be  questioned,  but  it  is,  doubtless,  in  the  main  just. 
Certainly  all  physicians  were  not  connected  with 
asclepia ;  and  in  later  times  the  asclepiades  proper 
were  avoided  by  the  more  intelligent  and  rational. 

Unfortunately^,  the  records  of  the  practice  of  the 
asclei)iades  have  been  almost  entirely  lost.  This  is  to 
be  regretted,  and  more  especially  because  what  is  pre- 
served is  of  a  decidedly  high  order  of  merit.*     How- 

*  Treatment.  '  Op.  cit.,  p.  777, 
'  In  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

*  Most  of  the  votive  inscriptions  which  have  been  discovered  by  Mr. 
Kavvadias  at  the  Epidaurian  Asclepion  do  not  fortify  this  opinion,  but 
they  do  not  serve  to  disi)rove  it,  because  others  of  a  different  character 
may  be  found.  Moreover,  the  practice  there  may  have  been  less  scientific 
than  at  Cnidus,  Cos,  and  elsewhere.  However,  the  inscriptions  brought 
to  light  by  Mr.  Kavvadias  are,  generally  speaking,  poor  enough.  One  runs 
thus:  "Cures  of  Apollo  and  ^sculupius.  Concerning  Kleo,  who  was 
enceinte  for  five  years.  This  woman,  after  being  enceinte  for  five  years, 
came  as  a  suppliant  to  the  god,  and  lay  down  to  sleep  in  the  sacred  cham- 


Asclepia  and  the  Asclepiades.  27 

ever,  it  is  probable  that  at  least  the  creme  of  the  whole 
has  been  handed  down  to  ns  by  Hippocrates. 

It  seems  certain  that  in  the  first  "  Prorrhetics  "  and 
the  "  Praenotiones  Coacae,"  which  are  transmitted  to  ns 
in  the  Hippocratic  Collection,  we  have  fragments  and 
excerpts  from  the  histories  of  diseases  and  cures  which 
were  formerly  found  on  the  votive  tablets  of  the  Coan 
Temple.  From  these  records  Hippocrates  drew  largely 
in  composing  his  highly  valuable  "  Book  of  Prog- 
nostics." In  reference  to  the  matter  Adams  saj^s  :  "  It 
is  as  clear  as  the  light  of  day  that  Hippocrates  composed 
this  work  from  them."^ 

It  is  more  than  probable  that,  except  for  a  short 
time  at  first,  the  system  of  treatment  pursued  by  the 
asclepiades  varied  within  wide  limits ;  and  it  is  equally 
certain  that  the  superstitious  element  lessened  as  time 
passed.  Between  the  principles  of  practice  of  JEscula- 
pius  and  those  of  Hippocrates^  there  is  a  very  wide 
difference.  Tliose  of  the  former  will  be  given  later ;  but 
of  those  of  the  latter  I  may  say  here  that  they  were 
essentially  scientific.^  To  Hippocrates  every  disease 
had  a  natural  cause,  and  was  to  be  cured  by  natural 

ber.  As  soon  as  she  had  gone  forth  from  it  and  from  the  sanctuary,  she 
gave  hirth  to  a  male  cliild.  When  the  baby  was  bom,  he  washed  himself 
in  the  fountain  and  set  to  creeping  around  his  mother." — See  Yj^rjfieplg 
' KpxacnXoyLKrj^  No.  4,  1883. 

*  Genuine  Works  of  Hippocrates  (Adams),  p.  229. 

2  "The  Father  of  Medicine"  was,  of  course,  one  of  the  asclepiades. 
He  was  born,  it  is  believed,  in  the  year  460  B.C.,  and  lived  to  be  very  old. 
His  genealogy  is  preserved  in  his  works.  As  given  in  Adams'  edition,  he 
is  of  the  fifteenth  generation,  in  a  direct  line,  from  -^Isculapius.  He  was 
of  the  Podalirius  branch.  In  this  connection  I  may  remark  that,  if  Hippoc- 
rates took  the  oath  of  the  asclepiades,  he  must  have  given  it  a  decidedly 
liberal  interpretation,  for  it  looks  as  if  he  divulged  to  the  whole  world  all 
the  mysteries  of  the  healing  art  of  great  consequence  then  known. 

^  It  is  improbable  that  Hippocrates  was  but  a  fair  example  of  the 
asclepiades  of  his  day.  He  has  said  himself:  "Physicians  are  many  in 
title,  but  very  few  in  reality."     (The  Law.) 


28  Medical  Symbolism. 

means.  He  was  wont  "  to  consult  Nature  herself  ahout 
Nature,"  as  Bacon  has  somewhere  wisely  advised. 
He  did  not  attribute  any  morbid  condition  to  any 
spiritual  power,  good  or  bad,  and  hence  in  his  practice 
did  not  resort  to  conjuration  or  any  related  means  of 
cure.  Even  of  epileps^y,  the  so-called  ''  sacred  disease," 
he  said  :  "  It  is  thus  with  regard  to  the  disease  called 
sacred  :  It  appears  to  me  to  be  nowise  more  divine  nor 
more  sacred  than  other  diseases,  but  has  a  natural  cause 
from  which  it  originates  like  other  affections."  And 
aoaiu  :  "  Men  regard  its  nature  and  cause  as  divine, 
from  ignorance  and  wonder."^  As  regards  holding 
disease  to  be  divinely  inflicted,  he  very  properly 
remarks :  "  I  do  not  count  it  a  worth}^  opinion  to  hold 
that  the  body  of  man  is  polluted  by  God."^ 

Not  only  in  the  principles  of  medicine,  but  in  its 
practice,  Hippocrates  was  wonderfully  sound,  even  when 
judged  from  the  stand-point  of  the  art  in  our  da}-.  In 
truth,  for  extent  and  profundity  of  medical  knowledge 
and  philosophy,  between  him  and  what  modern  would 
one  think  of  instituting  a  comparison?  Sydenham  has 
been  likened  to  him  ;  but,  although  I  am  an  admirer  of 
the  English  physician,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  he 
was  neither  in  breadth  nor  depth  any  such  man  as  the 
Coan.  As  a  writer  on  the  prevention  and  cure  of  dis- 
ease, Hippocrates  remains  facile  princeps.   . 

Let  it  not  be  hastily  supposed  that  my  admiration 
for  Hippocrates  is  unreasonably  great.  His  works  are 
truly  a  surprise  to  even  the  well-read  modern.  Very 
many  of  the  so-called  discoveries  of  recent  times  ma}'  be 
learned  b}^  turning  to  them.  I  speak  advisedly.  I  will 
cite  instances  :— 

*  On  the  Sacred  Disease.  '  Ibid. 


Asclepia  and  the  Asclepiades.  29 

Thus,  of  the  treatment  of  open  sores,  he  says  :  "In 
these  cases  no  part  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  air."  Dress- 
ings of  "  wine  and  oil"  and  "pitched  cerate^"  are 
directed  to  be  used. 

Again,  in  treating  fractures,  in  connection  with  cer- 
tain splints,  he  advises  that  "  a  soft,  consistent,  and  clean 
cerate  should  be  rubbed  into  the  folds  of  the  bandage  ;"2 
and  he  says,  "  If  you  see  that  the  bones  are  properly 
adjusted  by  the  first  dressing,  and  that  there  is  no 
troublesome  pruritus  in  the  part,  nor  any  reason  to 
suspect  ulceration,  you  may  allow  the  arm  to  remain 
bandaged  in  the  splints  until  after  the  lapse  of  more 
than  twenty  days."^ 

Still  again,  in  regard  to  the  reduction  of  a  dislocation 
at  the  hip-joint,  he  says,"  In  some  the  thigh  is  reduced 
with  no  preparation,  with  slight  extension,  directed  by 
the  hands,  and  with  slight  movement ;  and  in  some  the 
reduction  is  effected  by  bending  the  limb  at  the  joint 
and  making  rotation."* 

In  the  three  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  the  prac- 
tical side  of  the  germ  theory  of  disease,  the  permanent 
dressing  of  fractures,  and  the  reduction  of  dislocations 
by  manipulation. 

I  might  go  on  and  recount  numerous  other  matters 
alleged  to  be  new,  and  of  which  we  hear  much ;  but  it 
is  not  necessary.  I  may  add,  however,  a  few  items  of 
interest : — 

"  Bleed,"  says  the  old  Greek,  "  in  the  acute  affections, 
if  the  disease  appears  strong,  and  if  the  patients  be  in 
the  vigor  of  life,  and  if  they  have  strength."  Has  any 
modern  spoken  more  wisel}^  on  the  subject?^ 

Here  is  a  statement  worthy  of  the  attention  of  un- 

»  On  Fractures.  ^  latrum.  ^  On  Fractures. 

*  On  Articulations.  *  On  Regimen  in  Acute  Diseases. 


30  Medical  Symbolism, 

balanced  theorists  of  our  day:  In  fevers  and  pneumonia, 
heat  "is  not  the  sole  cause  of  mischief."^ 

He  gives  directions  for  the  use  of  effusions  with 
"water  of  various  temperatures"  in  ''cases  of  pneu- 
monia," of  "  ardent  fevers,"  and  of  other  diseases.  This 
treatment,  he  thinks,  "  suits  better  with  cases  of  pneu- 
monia than  in  ardent  fevers."  ^ 

In  that  inimitable  book,  his  "Aphorisms,"  it  is  said: 
"In  general,  diseases  are  cured  by  their  contraries." 
There  is  no  exclusive  allopathy  or  homoeopath}'-,  or 
dogma  of  any  kind,  in  that  statement;  it  is  the  senti- 
ment of  a  scientific  ph^^sician. 

Medicine  was  evidently  far  advanced  in  the  days  of 
Hippocrates  ;3  and  he  was  certainl}^  a  learned  and  sen- 
sible practitioner  of  it,  even  the  "  Prince  of  Physicians," 
as  Galen,  I  think,  somewhere  characterizes  him,  as  well 
as  one  who  did  much  to  make  it  what  he  pronounced  it 
himself  to  be,  namely,  "  of  all  arts  the  most  noble."* 

'  On  Ancient  Medicine.  '  On  Regimen  in  Acute  Diseases. 

'  In  the  ftfth  century  B.C.  *  The  Law. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

THE   GRECIAN   GOD   OF   MEDICINE. 

During  most  of  the  earlier  part  of  their  history  it 
is  safe  to  say  the  Greeks  regarded  Apollo  as  their  main 
god  of  medicine.  Being  possessed  of  the  eminent 
qualities  of  a  snn-god,  replacing  Helios  as  such,  and 
both  mighty  and  popular,  this  was  to  be  expected. 
Nothing  could  be  more  natural  than  to  accord  to  a 
deification  of  the  orb  of  day  a  direct  concern  with 
matters  pertaining  to  life  and  death. ^  Who  so  blind 
and  stupid  as  not  to  see  and  know  that  all  vital  activit}'' 
is  intimately  connected  with  the  presence  and  move- 
ments (apparent)  of  this  great  light-  and  heat-  produc- 
ing heavenly  body ! 

In  an  old  Chaldean  hj'mn  the  power  of  the  sun  over 
health  and  disease  is  recognized.  He  is  petitioned  to 
relieve  a  patient.  The  petitioner,  after  saying  that  "  the 
great  lord,  Hea,  had  sent  him,"  continues  : — 

"  Thou  at  thy  coming,  cure  the  race  of  man  ; 
Cause  a  ray  of  health  to  shine  upon  him ; 
Cure  his  disease. "^ 

However,  the  reader  of  Homer  is  well  aware  that 
medical  affairs  were  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  sulject  to 
the  will  of  Phoebus.  The  epidemic  which  affected  the 
Grecian  forces,  spoken  of  in  the  beginning  of  his  great 
work,  was  held  to  be  caused  by  the  god.  Being  moved 
to  anger  by  the  words  of  his  daughter-robbed  priest — 

^  It  is  a  beautiful  Biblical  passage  (date  about  400  B.C.)  which  reads 
"  The  sun  of  righteousness  shall  arise  with  healing  in  his  wings."  Malachi, 
iv,  2. 

^  See  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  180.    Francois  Lenormant.   London,  1877. 

(31)        , 


32  Medical  Symbolism. 

"  Latona's  son  a  dire  contagion  spread 
And  heap'd  the  camp  with  mountains  of  the  dead."* 

Chryses,  having  received  the  maiden 2  back  from  her 
kingly  abdnctor,^  then  addressed  Apollo  again,  saying, 
araong  other  thins^s  : — 

**  If  flr'd  to  vengeance  at  thy  priest's  request, 
Thy  direful  darts  inflict  the  raging  pest, 
Once  more  attend !     Avert  the  wasteful  woe 
And  smile  propitious  and  unbend  thy  bow."* 

The  praj'er  was  heard  and  answered  as  desired. 

Surgical  as  well  as  pureh^  medical  aid  was  sought 
and  received  from  Apollo.  Thus,  when  the  Lycian 
chief,  Sarpedon,  was  killed,  Glancus,  himself  sorely 
wounded  and  unable  to  protect  his  friend's  remains, 
petitioned  the  "  god  of  health,"  the  "  god  of  every  heal- 
ing art,"  and 

"  Apollo  heard  ;  and  suppliant  as  he  stood, 
His  heavenly  hand  restraiu'd  the  flux  of  blood; 
He  drew  the  dolours  from  the  wounded  part, 
And  breath'd  a  spirit  in  his  rising  heart. "^ 

One  of  the  names  often  applied  to  Apollo,^  and 
subsequently  to  his  son,''  was  distinctly  medical,  viz., 
Paeon,  or  Paieon.^  Homer  always  uses  it  in  referring 
to  the  pliysician  of  the  Olympian  gods,  as  where  he 
speaks  of  the  Pharian  race  as  "from  Pseon  sprung."^ 
"  Pseonian  herbs  "^^  is  the  phrase  used  by  Virgil  in  his 
account  of  the  restoration  to  life  of  Hippolytus.  And 
this  leads  me  to  say  that  Apollo  was  believed  to  have  a 
special  knowledge  of  medicinal  plants.  By  Ovid  he  is 
represented  as  saying  : — 

'  Iliad,  1.      *  Chryseis.      '  Ap:amemnon.      *  Op.  cit.,  i.      *  Iliad,  xvi. 
*  It  was  doubtless  from  the  idea  of  deliverance  from  suffering  that  the 
term  Pa?on  was  applied  to  Tlianatos,  or  Death,  as  was  sometimes  done. 
''  -^sculapius.  8  Hat6)v  or  Hair/cjv,  savior,  healer,  or  physician. 

»  Odyssey,  iv.  »<=  ^ueid,  vii. 


The  Grecian  God  of  Medicine.  33 

*'  What  herbs  and  simples  grow 
In  fields,  in  forests,  all  their  power  I  know."i 

It  may  be  further  said  that  Apollo  alwaj^s  continued 
to  have  healing  powers  accorded  him.  No  more  proof 
of  this  is  wanting  than  the  first  clause  of  the  Hippocratic 
oath — ''  I  swear  by  Apollo,  the  ph3^sician." 

It  would  seem  to  have  been  about  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war  that  the  special  god  of  medicine  began  to 
be  Adewed  as  such  by  the  Greeks.  Strong  reason  for 
so  believino;  is  found  in  tlie  fact  that  Homer  refers  to 
JEsculapius  as  simpl}^  "  a  blameless  doctor, "^ — a  mortal, 
the  adjective  used  never  being  applied  to  a  god.  A 
well-informed  writer  remarks  that  '"the  kernel  out  of 
which  the  whole  myth  has  grown  is,  perhaps,  the  account 
we  read  in  Homer."^  This  opinion  is  open  to  question. 
Even  the  title  of  Archegetes,  or  Primeval  Divinity, was 
sometimes  given  to  -.Esculapius,  and,  indeed,  under  that 
title  he  was  worshipped  by  the  Phocians  in  a  temple  sit- 
uated eighty  stadia'*  from  Tithorea.  This  name  was  also 
given,  it  must  be  said,  to  Apollo,  from  whom  probably 
it  was  received  by  the  son.  I  may  add  here  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  Abbe  Banier,  tliat  likely  a  distinguished 
plij^sician,  called  ^sculapius,^  of  the  age  of  Hercules 
and  Jason,  being  highly  honored,  was  in  time  confounded 

1  Metamorphosis,  i.  -  'IrjTTjp  afj-vfjiuv. 

'  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology. 

*  The  stadium  equals  600  feet ;  625  Roman  or  606%  English  feet  make 
a  stadium. 

*  Cicero  informs  us  that  there  were  three  distinguished  physicians  of 
the  name.  "The  first  ^sculapius,"  says  he,  "the  god  of  Arcadia,  who 
passes  for  the  inventor  of  the  probe  and  the  manner  of  binding  up 
wounds,  is  the  son  of  Apollo.  The  second,  who  was  slain  by  a  thunder- 
bolt and  interred  at  Cynosura  (in  Arcadia),  is  a  brother  to  the  second 
Mercury.  The  third,  who  found  out  the  use  of  purgatives  and  the  art  of 
drawing  teeth,  is  the  son  of  Arsippus  and  Arsinoe.  His  tomb  may  be 
seen  in  Arcadia  and  the  grove  that  is  consecratedto  him,  pretty  near  the 
river  Lusius."    On  the  Nature  of  the  Gods,  iii. 

2* 


34  Medical  Symbolism. 

with  tlie  old  Phoenician  and  Egyptian  god,  Esrann  ;  "  so 
tliat  in  process  of  time  the  worship  of  the  latter  came 
to  be  quite  forgotten,  and  the  new  god  substituted 
altogether  in  his  room.''^ 

<j}aleii  expresses  doubt  whether  the  divinity  of 
JEsculapius  was  the  result  of  a  gradual  development 
from  a  human  basis;  but  Pausanias  says:  "That 
^sculapius  was  from  the  first  considered  as  a  p  'd,  and 
that  his  fame  was  not  owing  to  le  igth  of  time,  I  find 
confirmed  by  various  arguments,  ud  even  by  the  au- 
thorit}^  of  Homer,  in  the  following  verses,  in  which 
Agamemnon  thus  speaks  of  Machaon  : — 

'Talthibius,  hither  swift,  Machaon  bring, 
Who  from  the  blameless  ^sculapius  sprung  ;'2 

which  is  just  as  much  as  if  he  had  said,  '  Call  a  man  who 
is  a  son  of  a  god.'  "^ 

In  the  indulgence  of  their  myth-forming  fancies  it 
was  very  reasonable,  very  wise,  on  the  part  of  tlie  Greeks 
to  nifike  ^sculapius  the  offspring  of  Apollo.  If  the 
god  of  medicine  be  viewed  as  a  personification  of  the 
healing  powers  of  nature,  what  more  rational,  as  has 
been  observed,  than  to  take  him  to  be  "the  son,  the 
eflfects  of  Helios,  Apollo,  or  the  sun."^ 

The  mythological  history  of  the  Grecian  god  of 
medicine  is  strange  and  interesting.  One  must  know 
it,  or  he  will  remain  in  the  dark  about  many  things 
bearing  on  the  symbolism  and  other  features  of  the 
physician's  art. 

^Esculapius  was  the  result,  so  the  story  runs,  of  a 

*  The  Mythology  and  Fables  of  the  Ancients  Explained  from  History, 
vol.  iii,  p,  160.  London,  1740.  Translated  from  the  French.  The  account 
of  -^sculapius  given  is  one  of  the  best  1  have  met  with. 

'  Iliad,  iv,  lines  193^.     Vide  supra. 

'  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  212. 

*  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography  and  Mythology. 


The  Grecian  God  of  Medicine.  35 

criminal  liaison  between  Apollo  and  a  young  virgin, 
named  Coronis,  a  native  of  Thessaly — something  which 
the  myth-makers  apparently  did  not  regard  as  discredit- 
able. The  morals  of  many  of  the  gods  were  exceedingly 
bad.  "  Our  manners  have  been  corrupted  by  communica- 
tion with  the  saints,"  ^  is  a  candid  remark  of  Thoreau.  It 
would  appear  that  the  ancients  were  corrupted  by  com- 
munication with  the  gods. 

It  is  recorded  of  Coronis  that  she  w^as,like  too  many 
of  the  sex,  fickle,  and  did  not  prove  faithful  to  her 
divine  paramour;  slie  stealthily  cultivated  a  criminal 
intimacy  witli  an  Arcadian  3'outli,  named  Isch3's.  The 
fact  of  her  infidelity  becoming  known  to  Apollo,  either 
through  a  message  of  a  raven, ^  or  his  own  divine  powers, 
he,  naturally  enough,  was  greatly  displeased.  And  the 
wrath  of  the  divinity  was  followed  by  a  series  of  re- 
markable events. 

At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  parent- 
age of  ^sculapius  was  a  question  which  earl}^  excited 
attention.  A  belief  existed  that  "  he  was  the  offspring 
of  Arsinoe  "  and  "  a  citizen  of  the  Messenians,"  as  Pau- 
sanias  informs  us.  Apollophanes,  an  Arcadian,^  being 
interested  in  the  matter,  went  to  Delos,  and,  putting  the 
question  of  its  truth  to  the  P^-thian  deity,  received  this 
reply  :— 

''  O  ^sculapius  !  source  of  mighty  joy- 
To  mortal  natures  ;  whom  Coronis  fair, 
Daughter  of  Phlegyas,  once  "with  me  coujoin'd, 
In  Epidauria's  barren  region  bore."  * 

According  to  tliis  dictum,  he  was,  indeed,  born  in 
Epidaurus.  Pausanias,  by  way  of  proof  of  the  truth  of 
it,    says :    "  I    find    that   the    most   illustrious  rites   of 

*  "Walden,  p.  85.  °  The  Greek  for  raven  or  crow  is  Kopuvi]. 

'  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  211.  *  Ibid. 


36  Medical  Symbolism. 

^sculapius  were  derived  from  Epidanrus."  ^  From 
that  point  the  worship  seems  to  have  spread.  It  is  said, 
however,  by  Strabo,^  that  his  birthpkice  was  Tricca,  in 
Thessaly.^ 

However,  to  return  to  our  story :  the  time  of  the 
delivery  of  Coronis  was  not  far  off,  when  the  news  of 
her  perfidy  reached  Apollo.  Notwithstanding  this,  he, 
being  seemingly  under  tlie  influence  of  the  "green-ej^ed 
monster"  to  an  ungodly  degree,  cruelly  resolved  on 
having  revenge  at  once.  Artemis,*  the  goddess  of 
chastit}^  was  directed  to  slay  the  unfaithful  maid  with 
a  tliunderbolt,  and  the  order  was  duly  executed.  On 
coins  of  Pergamus  the  unfortuuate  Thessalian  appears 
entirely  veiled. 

After  the  fatal  thunderbolt  had  descended  on  the 
enceinte  Coronis,  and  her  body  was  being  consumed  in 
the  merciless  pyre,  Apollo's  paternal  feelings  became 
stirred,  and  saying,  as  Pindar  tells  us, 

"I  may  not  bear  to  slay  my  child 
With  his  sad  mother,  sin-defiled, "5 

proceeded  forthwith  to  save  his  unborn  offspring. 

To  what  manner  of  operation  did  he  resort?  I  leave 
it  to  some  all-knowing  specialist  to  find  out;  but, at  any 
rate,  by  some  method  or  other,  the  child  was  rescued.^ 
Another  version  of  the  affair,  preserved  by  Pausanias, 
robs  the  god  of  any  possible  skill  as  a  gj'Ufecologist — 
surgical,  I  mean.  According  to  it,  when  Coronis  was 
undergoing  cremation,  after  being  slain  b}'  Artemis,  "the 

*  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  211.       ^  Geos;raphy,  xiv. 

*  According  to  Homer,  it  was  at  Tricca  and  round  about  that  his  two 
sons  bore  sway.    Iliad,  ii. 

*  Diana.  '  Pythian  Ode,  iii. 

^  As  Grimm  remarks,  children  bronj^ht  into  the  world,  like  Macduff, 
by  abdominal  section,  usually  become  heroes.  Teutonic  Mythology 
(translation),  p.  383. 


The  Gi^eciayi  God  of  Medicine.  31 

boy  is  said  to  have  been  snatched  by  Hermes  from  the 
flames."^  And  of  this  I  may  observe  that  it  was  not 
inappropriate  to  have  Hermes,  the  Grecian  metamor- 
phosis of  the  thrice-great  god  of  wisdom  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  Eg3q)tians,  present  at  the  unnatural  accouche- 
ment^ and  in  such  close  relation  to  ^sculapius  at  the 
very  beginning  of  his  wonderful  career. 

It  was,  then,  the  unhappy  fate  of  ^sculapius  to  be 
an  orphan  from  his  birth,  if  birth  he  had,  to  speak  cor- 
rectly''; and  it  is  possible  that  his  advent  was  decidedly 
premature — in  a  medical  sense.  Apollo  was  puzzled  to 
know  what  to  do  with  his  tender  son  ;  nor  did  he  do  for 
him  all  that  could  be  expected,  for  baby  JEsculapius 
was  heartlessly  exposed  on  Mount  Titthium.  Here  the 
little  unfortunate  fell  into  the  keeping  of  a  friendly  goat 
and  dog.  The  goat  gave  the  precious  enfant  trouve 
nourishment, 2  as  Amalthea  had  done  Zeus,  and  the  dog 
kept  guard  over  liim.^  Splendid  services,  indeed,  on  the 
part  of  two  humble  animals,  in  the  interest  of  medicine 
and  humanity  1 

On  Epidaurian  coins,  the  infantile  god  of  medicine 
is  appropriately  represented  under  a  she-goat  on  Mount 
Titthium,  with  Aresthanas  approaching.  This  person 
was  the  shepherd  of  whom  Pausanias  says  that,  coming 
to  the  rescue,  "he  beheld  a  splendor  beaming  from  the 
infant,  and,  thinking  that  it  was  something  divine,  as 
indeed  it  was,  departed  from  the  place.  But  a  report," 
he  continues,  "  was  immediately  spread  through  every 

*  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  210. 

"^  Because  of  this  occurrence  it  is  said  tliat  the  name  of  the  Mount  was 
changed  f rom  Myrtium.  to  Titthium,  from  Tit'&jj,  a  nurse. 

'  Heroes  were  often  indebted  to  dogs  for  kind  ofiBces.  The  Hindu 
Sarania  is  the  hitch  which  aids  such  when  lost  in  the  forests,  grottoes, 
or  darkness.  See  De  Gubernatis'  Zoological  Mythology,  p.  98.  Grimm 
even  says:  "A  widely-prevalent  mark  of  the  hero-race  is  their  being 
suckled  by  beasts  or  fed  by  birds."    Teutonic  Mythology,  p.  390. 


38  Medical  Symbolism. 

land  and  sea  that  such  as  were  afflicted  with  any  kind  of 
disease  were  healed  by  the  boy,  and  that  even  the  dead 
w^ere  raised  to  life."^  The  reader  need  hardly  be  in- 
formed that  accounts  parallel  to  this  are  common  enough 
in  ancient  records. 

How  it  happened  that  the  child  of  Coronis,  a  Thes- 
salian,  first  saw  the  light  in  Epidauria,  a  country  which 
became  particularly  sacred  to  him,  is  a  question  which 
should  be  answered.  It  appears  that  Coronis  came  there 
with  her  warlike  father,  Phleg3^as,  who  gave,  as  a  reason 
for  his  visit,  a  desire  to  see  the  countr^^,  but, "  in  realit^^" 
Pausanias  says,  "that  he  might  inspect  the  multitude  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  learn  whether  there  was  a  gieat 
quantit}^  of  fighting  men."  ^ 

Pindar  states  that  Apollo,  on  rescuing  his  child,  bore 
him  at  once  to  Chiron — 

'*  To  learn  of  human  woes  the  healing  lore, "3 

which  does  awa}^  with  the  fabled  discreditable  exposure 
of  him  ;  but  whether  this  be  so  or  not,  in  progress  of  time, 
he  did  put  him  under  the  care  and  instruction  of  "  the 
beneficent  leech,*  Cheiron  (to  use  the  archaic  expression 
of  the  historian,  Grote^),  the  Thessalian  Centaur,  or  fabu- 
lous monster,  whose  figure  from  the  waist  down  was  like 
the  body  of  a  horse. ^  Under  the  direction  of  this 
strangelj'-formed    creature,   ^sculapius    proceeded    to 


» Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol.  ii,  p.  210.  '  Ibid. 

»  Pythian  Ode,  iii. 

*  Leech  was  formerly  a  common  name  for  the  physician  ;  such  w;i,s  the 
meaning  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Icece  and  the  Gothic  leikeis. 

'  Hi.story  of  Greece,  vol.  i,  p.  179. 

*  Lenormant  says  that  the  Oriental  Gandarvas,  or  celestial  horses, 
which  represented  the  rays  of  the  sun,  gave  the  name  and  the  first  idea  of 
the  Grecian  Centaurs.  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii,  p.  13.  Mr.  Sayce 
holds  that  ''Hea-bani,  the  confidant  and  adviser  of  Gisdhuhar,  is  the  Ken- 
taur  Kheiron."  The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  156.    New  York,  1884. 


The  Grecian  God  of  Medicine.  39 

stud}^  the  medical  virtues  of  plants;  for  Chiron  was  a 
great  herbalist,  being  called  by  Homer,  in  the  words  of 
Pope,  "the  sire  of  pharmacy.''^  In  time  the  pupil  ex- 
ceeded the  teacher  in  his  knowledge  of  drug-s. 

Chiron  was  regarded,  Pindar  tells  us,^  as  the  son  of 
Saturn  and  the  sea-nj^niph  Philjra ;  and  hence  was  sL 
brother  of  Zeus.  Saturn  changed  himself  into  a  horse 
to  conceal  his  amour  with  the  nymph  from  his  wife,  K-hea. 
This  would  account  for  the  form  of  the  Centaur. 

Chiron  lived  in  a  cave  on  Mount  Pelion,in  Thessalj^ 
It  will  be  remembered  that  it  was  from  there  that  he  got 
the  ashen  spear^  for  Peleus,  which  the  son  brouglit  into 
use,  a  ponderous  spear,  which — 

'■'■  Stern  Achilles  only  wields, 
The  death  of  heroes  and  the  dread  of  fields.  "* 

According  to  Homer, "^  Hercules  received  instruction 
in  medicine  from  Chiron;  and  it  is  stated,  by  Pindar,® 
that  Jason  was  another  pupil  of  his.  With  these  JEscu- 
lapius  went,  as  physician,  on  the  celebrated  Argonautic 
expedition. 

At  the  end  of  bis  career,  the  Centaur  became,  it  is 
said,  the  sign  of  the  zodiac,  Sagittarius.^ 

^  Iliad,  xi.  2  Pythian  Ode,  vi. 

'  This  may  have  been  afraxinus,  or  true  ash, —a  famous  tree  in  mythi- 
cal history.  The  mountain-ash,  or  rowan-tree  {Pyrus  aueuparia),  however, 
has  been  believed  from  time  immemorial  to  possess  great  magical  powers. 
It  averted  fascination,  evil  sp^irits,  and  diseases.  Faith  in  it  is  still  wide- 
spread. See  Curiosities  of  Indo-European  Tradition  and  Folk-lore,  by 
Walter  K.  Kelly,  p.  158  et  seq.    London,  1863. 

*  Iliad,  xix.  '  Ibid.,  xi.  «  ISTemean  Ode,  iii. 

'  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  while  the  form  of  Chiron,  or  Cheiron, 
serves  as  a  pharmacist's  symbol,  he  has,  probably,  bequeathed  his  name  to 
the  healer  of  wounds  and  the  like,— the  surgeon.  The  word  surgeon  is 
from  the  Latin,  ehirurgus,  or,  rather,  the  French,  ehirurgien.  Chirurgeon 
has  some  standing  as  an  English  word.  The  Latin,  ehirurgus,  is  usually 
said  to  have  come  from  the  Greek,  x^'-P^'^PV'-'^'^Ci  ^  word  compounded  of 
X^i-P,  the  hand,  and  epyoc,  worker,  meaning  one  who  works  with  the  hand. 
It  seems  likely,  however,  that  the  name  of  the  Centaur,  x^tpuv,  suggested 
the  application  of  the  word  to  the  surgeon. 


40  Medical  Symbolism. 

In  treating  the  sick,  ^Esculapins  soon  proved  him- 
self a  master.  His  patients  did  not  die,  and  it  appears 
that  he  recalled  a  few  from  "the  shades  below."  But, 
sad  to  relate,  the  great  success  he  had  in  cnring  the  sick, 
and  especially  his  recalling  some  from  the  other  world, 
led  to  his  destruction.  Pluto,  the  god  of  the  nether  re- 
gions, not  wishing  a  sparse  population,^  became  dis- 
pleased with  him  and  complained  to  Zeus,  who,  proba]jl3^ 
believing  that  he  was  becoming  too  powerful,  so  much  so 
as  to  make  man  undying, ^  cut  sliort  his  career  wMth 
a  thunderbolt, — a  traged}^  which  cansed  his  father, 
Apollo,  to  wander  awa}^  to  the  land  of  the  H3'perbo- 
reans  and  to  shed  tears  of  gold.  At  the  request  of 
Apollo  he  was  placed  among  the  stars. ^  The  eighth 
day  of  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  was  devoted  to  sacri- 
fices to  him,  and  was  called  Epidanria. 

From  what  Yirgil  snys,  it  would  seem  tliat  it  was 
not  because  of  the  direct  exercise  of  his  power  to  re- 
store life  that  ^Esculapius  was  de»tro3^ed,  but  because 
of  the  degree  of  perfection  to  which  he  had  brought  tlie 
medical  art.  The  event,  "the  fable,"*  as  Pliny  desig- 
nates it,  is  connected  with  the  restoration  of  Hippolj'tus 
or  Yirbius,  and  is  thus  referred  to  b}'  the  Roman  poet: — 

"But  chaste  Diana  who  his  death  deplor'd 
With  iEseulapian  herbs  his  life  restored  ; 
Then  Jove,  who  saw  from  high  with  just  disdain 
The  dead  inspired  with  vital  breath  again, 
Struck  to  the  centre  with  his  flaming  dart 
The  unhappy  founder  of  the  god-like  art,"  ^ 

The  plan  of  treatment  pursued  by  iEsculapius  was 
variable.  After  speaking  of  the  sick,  "a  host  forlorn  " 
that  flocked  to  him,  Pindar  sa3'S  : — 

'  Diodorus,  iv  ;  Pindar's  Pythian  Ode,  iii.  "  Apollodorus,  ii. 

'  Hyginus.  Poet,  Ast.,  ii.  *  Natural  History,  xxix. 

'  -Sineid,  vil. 


The  Grecian  God  of  Medicme.  41 

"  Some  spells  brought  back  to  life ; 
These  drank  the  potion  plau'd;  for  these  he  bound 
With  drugs  the  aching  wound ; 
Some  leaped  to  strength  beneath  the  helpful  knife."  i 

The  lines  just  given  certainly  serve  to  disprove  tlie 
statement  of  Pliny,  that  in  Homeric  times  "  the  healing- 
art  confined  itself  solelj^  to  the  treatment  of  wounds."  ^ 
It  is  doubtless  true,  however,  that  nothing  is  said  in 
Homer's  works  about  particular  diseases. 

It  has  been  held  that  JEsculapius,  like  More's  Uto- 
pians, did  not  think  it  wise  to  bring  to  bear  the  art  of 
healing  in  the  case  of  any  one  who  might  not  be  re- 
stored to  health  and  to  usefulness  to  himself  and  others. 
Says  Plato  :  "  He  thought  medical  treatment  ill  bestowed 
upon  one  who  could  not  live  in  his  regular  round  of  du- 
ties, and  so  was  of  no  use  eitlier  to  himself  or  to  the 
State."  ^  The  great  philosopher  accordingly  regarded 
him  as  "  a  profound  politician."  For,  in  his  ideal  state, 
this  celebrated  theorizer  would  have  physicians  "  bestow 
their  services  on  those  only  of  the  citizens  whose  bodily 
and  mental  constitutions  are  sound  and  good,  leaving 
those  that  are  otherwise,  as  to  the  state  of  their  body, 
to  die,  and  actually  putting  to  death  those  who  are 
naturally  corrupt  and  incurable  in  soul."*  Some  ex- 
cellent reasons  might  be  advanced  in  favor  of  such  a 
harsh  policy,  but,  while  human  love  of  life  and  human 
sympathy  remain  as  now,  it  will  never  be  brought  into 
play.®  As  an  ideal  physician,  ^sculapius  could  hardly 
have  been  an  advocate  of  it.^ 

»  Pythian  Ode,  iii.  2  Natural  History,  xxix. 

'  Republic,  b.  iii.  *  Ibid. 

*  This  policy  is  inculcated  in  the  "Institutes  of  Menu."  The  in- 
curable Hindu  is  directed  to  proceed  toward  the  invincible  northeast, 
living  on  air  and  water.    Exposure  in  battle  is  also  advised. 

'«  Herodicus  introduced  the  new  practice.  He  was  a  sickly  traiuer, 
and  did  what  he  could  to  keep  well ;  "and  so,"  says  Plato,  "dying  hard  by 
the  help  of  science,  he  struggled  on  to  old  age."    Republic,  b.  iii. 


42  Medical  Symbolism. 

I  may  sa}'  a  word  about  the  charge  of  Pindar,  that 
the  efforts  of  -^sculapius  to  recall  the  dead  to  life  were 
inspired  by  temptation  with  gold.     The  poet  says  : — 

"  Alas  1  that  filthy  gain  can  blind  the  wise ! 
The  glittering  gold  betrayed  the  noble  leech, 
From  the  dark  prison-house  to  bid  arrive 
A  captive  thrall  of  death  ! 
But  Jove  with  wrathful  hand  refused  to  each 
The  hallowed  breath. 
Down  came  the  bolt  of  fire."  ^ 

Making  such  an  ngly  charge  is  probably  unjust  to 
the  great  healer.  The  historian,  Grote,  thinks  so,  and 
expresses  the  opinion  that  Pindar  was  disposed  "  to  ex- 
tenuate the  cruelt}^  of  Zeus  by  imputing  guilty  and  sor- 
did views  to  ^sculapius."  ^  Long  ago  the  accusation 
was  met  by  Plato.  Says  he  :  "  While  they  ^  assert  that 
^sculapius  was  the  son  of  Apollo,  they  declare  that  he 
was  induced  by  a  bribe  of  gold  to  raise  to  life  a  rich 
man  who  was  dead,  which  was  the  cause  of  his  being 
smitten  with  a  thunderbolt.  But  we,  with  our  principles, 
cannot  believe  both  these  statements  of  theirs.  We 
shall  maintain  that,  if  he  was  the  son  of  a  god,  he  was 
not  covetous  ;  if  he  was  covetous,  he  was  not  the  son  of 
Apollo."'*     He  was  the  son  of  Apollo. 

To  conclude  this  imperfect  sketch  of  the  life  of 
^sculapius,  I  may  add  that  he  w^as  married,  as  every 
wise  as  well  as  respectable  ph3^sician  should  be,^  and, 
as  was  desirable  in  an  exemplar,  the  father  of  at  least 
six  children, — two  sons  and  four  daughters.  The  two 
sons,  Machaon  and  Podalirius,  taught  by  their  "parent 

*  Pythian  Ode,  iii.  "  History  of  Greece,  vol.  i,  p.  159. 
3  Pindar  and  various  tragedians.  *  Republic. 

*  Says  Ahura-Mazda  :  "  The  man  who  has  a  wife  is  far  above  him  who 
begets  no  son  ;  he  who  keeps  a  house  is  far  above  him  who  has  none  ;  he 
wlio  has  children  is  far  above  the  childless  man."    Zend  Avesta. 


The  Gt^ecian  God  of  Medicine.  43 

god,"  as  Homer  informs  us,  became  "  famed  surgeons," 
"  divine  professors  of  the  healing  art,"^  and  were  also 
distinguished  warriors  under  Agamemnon.  Of  the 
daughters,  Hygeia,  Panacea,  Jaso,  and  ^gle,  the  first 
became  the  goddess  of  health,  of  whom  more  anon. 

'■  Iliad,  ii. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

THE   IMAGE   OF   ^SCULAPIUS. 

A  SIMPLE  image  of  a  god  ma}^  be  regarded  as  a 
symbol.  When  the  image  has  connected  with  it  one  or 
more  figures  to  indicate  the  qualities  or  functions  of  the 
divinitj',  we  have  then,  strictl}^  speaking,  an  allegorical 
representation.  ^Esculapiiis  was  sometimes  shown  in 
the  one  way  and  sometimes  in  the  other.  Thus,  he  was 
occasionally  to  be  seen  at  Rome,  and  elsewhere,  in  the 
form  of  a  serpent;  and,  at  the  Epidaurian  Grove,  for 
example,  as  a  man  having  in  connection  with  him  a 
serpent,  a  dog,  and  other  things. 

As  is  implied  in  what  I  have  just  said,  there  was  no 
set,  invariable  mode  of  portrayal  of  JEsculapius.  This 
fact  should  be  clearly  understood.  But  let  it  not  be 
supposed  that  it  is  by  any  means  singular.  It  will 
occur  to  the  well-informed  reader  that  the  same  holds 
true  in  regard  to  Zeus,  Apollo,  Yenus,  and,  indeed,  all 
other  divinities.  SaysMiiller:  "  The  so-called  ideals  of 
the  Grecian  gods  are  not  types ;  they  do  not  preclude 
the  freedom  of  the  artist ;  they  rather  contain  the 
strongest  impulse  to  new,  genial  creations. "^  It  is, 
perhaps,  self-evident  that  a  statue  of  a  god  must  neces- 
sarily be  quite  ideal;  and,  of  course,  an  ideal  is  with- 
out absolute  permanency.  Still,  it  remains  true  that  in 
the  case  of  JEsculapius,  as  well  as  that  of  every  other 
deity,  there  was  a  more  or  less  definite  conventional 
way  of  representing  him.  This,  however,  was  largely 
dependent   on   the   presence   of    attributes.      Thus,   it 

*  Hand-Book  of  Aucient  Art  and  its  Remains,  p.  12. 

(45) 


46  Medical  Symbolism. 

would  be  not  oiil}^  inconsistent  witli  custom,  but  almost 
futile,  to  attempt  to  delineate  him  without  the  presence 
of  a  serpent. 

The  most  magnificent  representation  of  ^sculapius 
was  the  one  at  Epidaurus.  A  description  of  it  has 
already  been  given.  This  fine  work  of  art  disappeared 
at  an  earl}^  da}^  The  vandals  could  not  be  expected  to 
spare  it ;  the  gold  in  its  composition  was  fatal  to  its 
permanency.  It  was  borne  on  coins  of  Epidaurus. 
According  to  Strabo,^  a  cop}'-  of  it  was  taken  to  tlie 
Galatian  town,  Pessinus,  not  Rome,  as  is  often  said. 
Several  other  places  were  similarly  favored. 

There  was  a  very  celebrated  statue  of  ^Esculapius  at 
the  renowned  Asclepion  of  Pergamus,  the  production  of 
the  artist  Pyromachus,  as  well  as  one  similar  to  that  of 
Epidaurus.  It  became  the  prevailing  type  in  art.  In  it 
the  god  was  represented  as  a  mature  man  of  benevolent 
expression,  with  his  rather  long  hair  bound  with  a  fillet, 
and  in  his  right  hand  he  held  a  staff  en  wreathed  with  a 
serpent.  He  wore  a  himation^  drawn  tight  over  the  left 
arm  and  breast.  The  whole  right  side  from  the  waist 
up  was  uncovered.  His  attitude  was  that  of  a  person 
ready  to  reuder  assistance.  "  We  can  recoguize,"  says 
Miiller,  "  the  figure  with  tolerable  certainty  as  the  most 
usual  representation  of  the  god  on  numerous  coins  of 
Pergamus."^ 

The  well-known  statue  of  ^sculapius  at  Berlin 
resembles  that  at  Pergamus  ;  and  the  same  is  true  of 
one  at  Florence,  and  others.  That  of  Berlin  has  the 
serpent-wreathed  staff,  or  support,  placed  on  the  left 
side.  This  appears  to  have  been  frequently  done.  An 
instance  of  it  I  have  observed  in  a  gem  bearing  ^scula- 

*  Strabo,  xii,  5.  'A  toga  of  limited  dimensions. 

3  Ancient  Art  and  its  Remains,  p.  131. 


The  Image  of  JEsculapius.  4t 

pins  find  H3^geia,  taken  from  a  tomb  at  Tliron, — a  piece 
of  work  of  the  Roman  period.  It  is  shown  in  General 
Di  Cesnola's  interesting  worli.^ 

While  ^sculapius  was  made  to  appear  aged  in  some 
instances,  as  in  the  Epidaurian  representation,  he  was 
sometimes  presented  in  yontliful  form,  and  beardless, 
like  his  father,  Apollo.  And  this  reminds  me  of  the 
story  told  of  D^^onysins,  King  of  Sicilj^,  tlint,  on  con- 
quering the  Morea,  he  ordered  the  beard  to  be  taken  off 
the  Epidaurian  statue  of  the  god,  for  the  reason  that  it 
was  unbecoming  and  unjust  for  the  son  to  have  a  beard 
when  the  father  had  none.  Possibl}^  if  it  had  not  been 
a  golden  one  it  would  not  have  been  molested. 

I  may  venture  to  say  that  both  aged  and  3^outhful 
representations  of  ^sculapius  are  open  to  criticism.  An 
ideal  physician  should  be,  as  in  the  statue  at  Pergamus, 
a  man  in  his  prime,  or,  in  other  words,  mature,  but 
neither  3^oung  nor  old.  Tlie  immature  man  is  apt  to  be 
defective  in  judgment,  and  the  superannuated  one  is 
nearl}"  alwaj^s  of  excessively  routine  practice  and  igno- 
rant of  recent  advances  in  his  profession. 

By  way  of  conclusion,  I  will  say  a  few  words 
about  the  famous  colossal  head  of  ^sculapius,  origi- 
nally colored  and  decorated  with  a  bronze  wreath, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  where  it  has  been  since 
1866.  It  represents,  with  marked  freedom  and  breadth 
of  execution,  a  finelj^-developed  man  of  middle  age,  with 
a  cast  of  countenance  similar  to  that  of  the  Phidian 
Zeus.  The  beard  is  of  moderate  length  and  is  waved 
like  the  somewhat  long  hair.  This  is  really  one  of  the 
noblest  remnants  of  Grecian  art.  Nichols,  in  whose 
work^  an  engraving  of  it  is  given  as  a  frontispiece,  just 

*■  Cyprus.    London,  1877. 

2  Handy-book  of  the  British  Museum,  1870. 


48  Medical  Symbolism. 

as  it  is  in  this  one,  regards  it  "  as  scarcel}''  less  remark- 
able "  than  the  celebrated  ''  Venus  of  Milo "  in  the 
Louvre,  both  of  which  were  found,  the  former  in  1828, 
on  the  island  of  Melos.  It  is  considered  to  be  the  work 
of  an  artist  of  the  Macedonian  period,  about  B.C.  300, — a 
time  when  the  Greek  sculptor  had  attained  perfect 
mastery  of  his  art. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

THE  ^SCULAPIAN  STAFF  AND  SERPENT. 

The  staffs  and  serpent  of  ^scnlapins  being  of  special 
emblematic  significance,  1  deem  it  proper  to  speak  of  it 
at  some  length.  The  confusion  of  ideas  which  appears 
to  prevail  extensively  in  regard  to  it  implies  that  a  defi- 
nite, explicit  account  of  it  is  much  needed. 

Although,  as  will  be  remembered,  Ovid  makes  ^scu- 
lapius  refer  to  his  serpent-en  wreathed  staff  when  ad- 
dressing the  commission  which  came  from  Rome  to 
Epidaurus,  in  the  fiimous  representation  of  him  given 
there,  none  was  present.  The  poet  may  possibly  have 
been  misled  by  what  had  become  familiar  to  him  at 
home  ;  for  one  was  to  be  seen  in  connection  with  the 
statue  of  the  god  at  Rome.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  it  was  a  common  occurrence  for  a  living  serpent, 
one  of  the  species  kept  and  viewed  as  sacred  in  the 
Hierum,  to  climb  the  staff  in  the  hand  of  the  Epidaurian 
statue. 

It  is  very  likely  that  the  staff  bearing  a  serpent  be- 
came a  characteristic  emblem  of  the  god  of  medicine 
through  the  great  work  of  the  sculptor,  Pyromachus,  at 
the  Asclepion  of  Pergamus,  which  I  have  already  de- 
scribed. The  appropriateness  of  it  was  widely  recog- 
nized, but  it  was  not  always  adopted,  as  is  attested  by 
the  remains  of  ancient  art. 

Apart  from  the  serpent,  the  import  of  which  will  be 
fully  treated  of  in  the  succeeding  chapter,  the  staff  as 
an  attribute  of  JEsculapius  merits  stud3\     Like  many 

*  PaKTTjptov.  A  bacterion  is  now  a  disease-germ.  A  marked  instance 
of  liow  the  sense  of  words  may  become  changed. 

3  c  (49^ 


50 


Medical  Symbolism. 


other  apparently  simple  things  in  art,  it  may  stand  for  a 
great  deal  more  than  one  wonld  suppose  on  first  view. 

The  object  encircled  by  a  serpent  held  in  the  hand 
of  the  ^scnlapian  statue  by  Pyromachns,  at  Perga- 
mus,  is  evidently  a  walking-stick.  The  Epidanrian 
statue  has  a  similar  o])ject  in  one  of  the  hands,  and  the 
same  is  the  case  in  man^'-  others.  Hence,  as  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  gods  of  the  ancients  had  rarely  or 
never  anything  but  significant  attributes  attached  to 
them,  it  is  pertinent  to  ask  an  explana- 
tion of  its  presence.  Was  there  an  his- 
torical basis  for  it  ?  In  other  words,  was 
JEsculapius  notoriously  in  the  habit  of 
carrying  a  staff?  If  so,  it  is  possible 
that  this  was  why  Pyromaclius,  Thrasy- 
medes,  and  other  artists  connected  one 
with  .figures  of  him.  But  there  is  no 
special  reason  for  believing  that  such 
was  the  case.* 

Then,  did  the  artists  place  a  staff  in 
the  hand  of  -^sculapins  of  their  own 
accord  to  indicate  the  perambulatory 
character  of  the  physician's  calling  ? 
Such  an  attribute  was  doubtless  deemed 
appropriate  b}^  them  ;  but,  before  one  could  believe  that 
they  gave  it  on  the  score  of  apparent  appropriateness,  it 
would  have  to  be  shown  that  it  was  in  the  power  of 
artists  to  design  gods  at  pleasure, — something  which 
could  not  be  done.  They  evolved  it,  I  may  venture  to 
sav,  from  something  allied  in  form. 

*  Of  course,  it  is  possible  enough  that  -a5.-;c\ilapius  carried  a  staff  at 
times.  The  Greeks,  however,  were  not  so  ninch  given  to  the  practice  as 
some  otlier  peoples,  as  the  Egvptians  (see  Rawlinson's  Egypt  and  Babylon, 
p.  210.  New  York,  1885),  or  the  Babylonians,  of  whom  Plerodotus  (i,  195) 
says  that  "everyone  carries  a  walking-stick  carved  at  the  top  into  the 
form  of  an  apple,  a  rose,  a  lily,  an  eagle,  or  something  similar." 


^ 


Fig.  3.— Club 
OK  Staff  op 
-S:  s  c  u  I.  A  P  I  u  s. 
{.From  Maffei.) 


The  JEsculapian  Staff  and  Serpent.  51 

Tliere  is  little  or  no  ground  for  believing  tliat  the 
staff  of  JEsculapius  was  a  wonder-working  object.  I 
am  not  aware  that  such  a  thing  was  placed  intentionally 
in  his  hand  by  any  artist.  Hence,  the  references  often 
made  to  the  mystic  wand  of  the  god  spring  from  mis- 
apprehension, a  walking-staff  being  something  very 
different. 

One  can  obtain,  I  believe,  from  an  examination  of 
the  Berlin  statue  and  others, — in  which  ^sculapius  is 
represented  leaning  on,  or  standing  by,  a  post  of  A^ari- 
able  thickness  and  more  or  less  regular  in  shape, — a  clue 
to  an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  staff.  Between 
the  two  objects  the  difference  is  not  great,  certainly  not 
radical ;  and  as  attributes  thej^  might  be  expressive  of 
the  same  thing.  The  club  shown  in  the  picture  (Fig.  3), 
from  MatTei,  miglit  be  viewed  as  intermediate. 

Of  course,  I  do  not  say  that  the  prototj^pe  of  the 
staff  was  the  post  present  in  some  representations  of 
^sculapius,  although  the  idea  would  not  be  entirely 
unreasonable.  There  is  more  ground  for  the  opinion 
that  both  were,  so  to  speak,  the  offspring  of  something 
else. 

Any  one  familiar  with  the  antique  representations  of 
^sculapius,  and  who  has  also  seen  different  ones  of 
Apollo,  might  well  be  inclined  to  believe  that  both  gods 
have  essentially  the  same  thing  bj^  their  side,  namely,  a 
post  with  a  clinging  serpent.  And  when  it  is  recalled 
that  JEsculapius  was  the  son  of  Apollo,  the  opinion 
might  be  advanced  with  some  degree  of  reasonableness, 
that  the  emblem  of  the  former  was,  in  reality,  that  of 
the  latter,  somewhat  modified. 

Tracing  thus  the  origin  of  the  staff  of  ^^sculapius 
to  the  related  s3^mbol  possessed  b}"  his  father,  Apollo,  it 
would  not  be  satisfactory  to  rest  here ;  one  naturally 


52  Medical  Symbolism. 

wants  to  know  something  about  tlie  latter.  A  few  words, 
however,  on  the  subject  must  suffice. 

Although  it  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  artists 
to  give  posts  by  the  side  of  statues,  the  one  bearing  the 
serpent  in,  sa}^,  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  was,  it  is  thought, 
meant  to  represent  the  Omphalos,  to  which  the  Grecians 
attached  much  significance. 

The  Omphalos, 1  in  the  form  of  a  conical  stone,  was 
kept,  and  was  present  within  historical  times,  as  Strabo 
explicitly  states,  at  Delphi,  a  place  which,  he  says,  "  was 
supposed  to  be  the  centre  of  tiie  habitable  earth,  and 
was  called  the  navel  of  the  earth. "^  Plato  refers  to 
Apollo  as  "  the  god  whose  seat  is  the  middle  point  of 
the  earth,  its  very  navel. "^  According  to  a  legend,* 
Delphi  was  esteemed  the  centre  of  the  earth,  because  two 
eagles  sent  out  by  Zeus,  one  from  the  east  and  the 
other  from  the  west,  met  at  that  point.  Says  Strabo  : 
"  In  the  temple  is  seen  a  sort  of  navel,  wrapped  in  bands 
and  surmounted  by  figures  representing  the  birds  of  the 
fable."  5 

The  etymology  of  the  word  Omphalos  casts  light  on 
its  meaning.  Olympos,  the  mount  of  the  gods,  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  it.     Omphi-el^  is  the  oracle  of  the  sun-god. 

^  'O/LtxpaXSg  means  navel.  Umbilicus  was  derived  from  it.  The  Jews 
regarded  Jerusalem  as  the  navel  of  the  earth  (see  Ezekiel,  v,  5),  and  also 
every  other  people  has  flattered  itself  as  having  it  within  its  possessions. 
(See  chap,  iv  of  Rev.  Dr.  William  F.  Warren's  Paradise  Found.  Sixth 
edition.    Boston,  1885.) 

2  Strabo,  ix,  3.  '  Republic,  iv. 

*  See  Pindar's  Pythian  Ode,  iv.  ^  Strabo,  ix,  3. 

*  In  most  of  the  Oriental  countries,  including  Egypt,  there  was  always 
more  or  less  of  a  belief  in  one  great  divinity.  "  The  Supreme  Omnipotent 
Intelligence"  of  the  Hindus  was  "a  spirit  by  no  means  the  object  of  any 
sense,  which  can  only  be  conceived  by  a  mind  wholly  abstracted  from 
matter."  (Institutes  of  Menu) .  El  was  a  name  given  the  Ineffable  One  by 
the  Phcenicians  and  other  peoples.  II  or  Ilu  and  Jaoh,  the  "being,"  the 
"  Eternal,"  the  "  Jehovah  "  of  the  Hebrews,  were  designations  of  him  used 
by  the  Babylonians,  and  from  him,  it  was  believed,  the  great  trinity,  Anu, 


The  ^sculapian  Staff  and  Serpent.  53 

Al-oinjjhi  was  used  to  designate  hills,  or  mountains. 
Holwell  saj^s  that  the  word  came  from  Egypt,  and  was 
originall}^  Ompha-el,  and  related  to  the  oracle  of  Ham, 
or  the  sun.i  The  idea  of  a  sacred  mount  or  elevation 
is  thus  the  original  meaning  of  the  word.  And  here  I 
may  say  that  in  Hindu  m3tholog3!'  considerable  is  said 
of  a  mountain  encircled  by  a  great  serpent. ^ 

Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the  reasons  in  favor  of 
the  idea  that  the  Omphalos  became  the  staff  of  ^scu- 
lapius  are  entirely  insubstantial.  Kemains  of  ancient 
art  furnish  excellent  proof  of  it.  Miiller  sa3^s :  "  In  a 
Pompeian  j)icture,  ^sculapius  has  beside  him  the 
Omphalos,  which  is  entwisted  with  the  well-known  net, 
composed  of  GrEU[iata.  We  see  from  this  that  this 
s^'mbol  of  Apollo  was  also  transferred  to  his  son.  On 
the  coins  of  the  gens  Rubria,  likewise,  it  is  not  an  egg,  as 
is  usually  asserted,  but  the  Omphalos  placed  on  a  ci7'cular 
altar  that  is  encircled  by  the  ^scul apian  serpent.^''^ 

To  one  A^ersed  in  the  history  of  Phoenicia  and  other 
Oriental  countries,  the  Omphalos  is  yqyj  certain  to  be 
viewed  in  another  light  than  as  a  S3^mbol  of  a  "  high 
place,"  or  mount*  of  worship.  In  the  great  Tyrian 
Temple  of  Baal  Melkarth,  which  Herodotus  went  to  see 
and  admired  much,  and  of  which  that  of  Solomon, 
or,  rather,  of  Jehovah  on  Mount  Moriali  was  almost  a 
copy,  even  to  the  two  pillars  in  front, — symbols  of  the 
sun-god, — were  certain  similar  stones,  carefully  preserved 
and  duly  reverenced.     These,  it  is  well  known,  were  of 

Hea,  and  Bel  emanated.  Some,  however,  especially  in  early  times,  con- 
founded him  with  Anu.  Baal,  the  "Lord,"  was  a  common  designation  of 
him  in  Syria  and  elsewhere. 

*  Dictionary  of  Mythology.    London,  1793.  2  Anantas. 
3  Ancient  Art  and  its  Remains,  p.  519. 

*  The  reader  is  doubtless  familiar,  through  the  Bible,  with  consecrated 
stones.  AMaQQeba  was  a  necessary  mark  of  every  "high  place."  Jacob 
set  one  up  (Gen.,  xxxi,  45). 


54  Medical  Symbolism. 

procreative  import;  they  were  phallic  in  character.^ 
Was  the  Omphalos  of  similar  significance?  There  is 
little  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was  often  regarded  in  that 
light.  ''  In  the  earliest  times,"  says  Miiller,  "  a  conical 
pillar,  placed  in  the  street  and  called  Apollo  Agyicus, 
sufficed  to  keep  in  remembrance  the  protecting  and 
health-bringing  power  of  the  god."^ 

The  staff,  then,  in  the  hand  of  ^sculapius  may  have 
had  its  prototjq^e  in  the  Phallus, — truly  both  an  expres- 
sive and  sublime  symbol,  when  contemplated  by  pure, 
enlightened  minds. 

But,  notwithstanding  what  I  have  said,  one  might 
present  some  arguments  in  favor  of  the  view  that 
the  staff  of  ^sculapius  had  its  true  prototype  in  a 
magic  wand  or  symbol  of  office.  As  will  be  i)ointed 
out  later,  the  Accadio-sumerian,  Silik-mulu-khi,  the 
beneficent  son  of  Hea,  subsequently  Marodach  or  Mar- 
duk  of  the  Babylonians  and  Ass3n'ians,  a  healing 
divinit}^,  from  whom  the  conception  of  ^sculapius  may 
have  partly  sprung,  carried  a  reed  when  attending  to 
his  duties. 

^  .See  Lenorraant's  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii,  p.  230.  A  pil- 
lar, cone,  or  tree-stem,  moi*e  or  less  ornamented,  constituted  the  Asherah 
of  the  Syrians  and  others,  which  many  of  the  Israelites  long  looked  on 
with  favor  (see  Numbers,  xxv,  and  2  Judges,  xxii),  and  which  is  in  the 
authorized  version  of  the  Bible  translated  "grove,"  as  in  the  phrase,  "the 
women  wove  hangings  for  the  grove  "  (2  Judges,  xxxiii,  7).  It  was  the 
image  of  the  goddess  of  fertility  and  life,  the  Istar  of  the  Babylonians. 
The  Baal-peor  of  the  Moabites,  Midianites,  and  others,  and  thePriapusof 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  practically  similar.  I  may  add  that  the 
JPhallus  (derived  from  Apis,  the  Egyptian  sacred  bull),  the  linga  of  the 
Hindus,  has  been  taken  by  many  peoples  as  emblematic  of  the  widely- 
worshipped,  active,  renovating  power  in  nature,  the  sun  ;  just  as  an  oval  or 
round  figure,  the  cteis  of  the  Greeks,  the  yoni  of  the  Hindus,  has  been  of 
the  passive  power,  the  earth.  (See  Cox's  Mythology  of  the  Aryans).  The 
latter  is  the  Miple(;eth,  or  "abominable  image  for  an  Asherah,"  spoken  of  in 
the  Bible  (1  Kings,  xv,  18,  and  2  Chronicles,  xv,  Ifi).  The  whole  subject  is 
well  presented  in  a  little  book  by  Messrs.  Wcstropp  and  Wake,— Ancient 
Symbol  Worship.     New  York,  1874. 

'  Ancient  Art  and  its  Remains,  p.  442. 


The  jEsciilapian  Staff  and  Serj)ent.  55 

I  ma}^  say,  too,  that  some  hold  the  staff  in  the  hand 
of  the  Egyptian  Thoth  to  have  been  the  original  of  the 
one  accorded  JEsculapius.  Thus,  in  an  excellent  and 
finely  illustrated  essa}^,  W.  R.  Cooper  sa3's  :  "  When 
once  the  urseus  had  been  associated  with  the  idea  of 
divinit}",  the  Theban  priests,  rightly  desiring  to  ascribe 
the  gift  of  life  and  the  power  of  healing  to  the  Deity 
alone,  significantly  enough  twined  the  serpent  around 
the  trident  of  Jupiter  Amnion  and  the  staff  of  Thoth  or 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  the  author  of  medicine,  to  imply 
the  source  from  which  that  subordinate  demigod's  vir- 
tues were  derived.  From  this,  in  the  later  periods  of 
her  history,  Egypt  remitted  to  Greece,  along  with  the 
so-called  forty-six  hermetic  treatises,  the  traditional 
caduceus  or  serpent-sceptre  of  C3'llenius^  and  JEscula- 
pius,  and,  b}^  subsequent  transformation  of  the  same 
deities  into  a  feminine  form,  the  snake  and  bowl  of 
Hj^geia,  the  goddess  of  health.''^  The  "  serpent- 
sceptre  "  which  Egypt  "  remitted  "  to  Cyllenius  and  to 
-(Esculapius  must  have  changed  greatly  in  the  passage, 
for  it  is  anything  but  alike  as  seen  in  the  hands  of  the 
two,  and  in  neither  case  is  it  very  similar  to  the  assei'ted 
original.  As  well  or  better  to  take  the  staff  and  serpent 
to  be  the  serpent-bearing  tree, — the  tree  of  life  in 
miniature. 

However,  the  fact  remains,  as  already  stated,  that 
JEsculapius  had  no  wand  ;  that  is,  a  rod  of  magic  power. 
The  very  different  personage,  Hermes,  as  also  Iris,  the 
female  messenger  of  the  goddesses,  had  a  wand  or, 
rather,  caduceus,  which,  strange  to  say,  is  taken  by  many 
to  be  a  s^'mbol  of  medicine ;  that  is,  the  caduceus  of 
Hermes,   which   is    not    of    medical   import   at   all,    is 

*  A  name  given  to  Hermes. 

2  Transactions  of  tlie  Victoria  Institute,  vol.  vi,  p.  329.    London,  1873. 


56 


Medical  Symbolism. 


accorded  to  -^sculapius,  wlio  really  had  none.  I  repeat : 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  an  iEscnlapian  wand,  if  wand 
be  taken  to  mean  a  rod  possessed  of  wonder-working- 
power.  But,  of  course,  the  serpent-bearing  staff  of 
^sculapius  is  an  expressive  medical  emblem. ^  I  give 
an  example  after  one  in  a  plate  in  De  Wilde's  rare  old 
book. 2  One  might  take  the^  serpent  to  be  a  S3^mbol  of 
the  god  and  the  staff  as  symbolic  of  the  moving  of  the 
physician  from  house  to  house  in  the  exercise  of  his 
profession.  Regarding  the  knots  as  expressive  of  diffi- 
culties in  the  art  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine is  very  fanciful,  but  not  infrequently 
done.  It  is  proper  to  observe,  however, 
that  the  physician's  staff  in  modern 
times  is  smooth,  as  will  be  pointed  out 
later. 

I  deem  it  not  amiss  to  give  a  cut  of 
the  caduceus  of  Hermes,  in  the  hope  of 
better  removing  misapprehension  in  re- 
gard to  it.  I  give  it  as  shown  on  the 
seal  of  the  United  States  Marine-Hos- 
pital Service.  It  is  an  appropriate  trade 
symbol,  Hermes  being  the  god  of  com- 
merce^ as  well  as  the  messenger  of  the 
gods ;  but  it  is  more  especially  a  symbol  of  peace,  the 
god  being  the  great  peace-maker.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Traditional  history  relates  that,  in  his  rambles  one 
day,  Hermes  saw  two  snakes  fighting,  and,  laying  his 
wand — which  was  originally  an  olive-branch  received 
from  Apollo — between  them,  was  delighted  to  discover 
that  it  had  the  power  of  putting  an  end  to  the  encounter, 

•  "Aaron's  rod  "  is  similarly  constituted,  but  of  different  import. 

"  Gemmae  Selectae.    Amsterdam,  1703. 

'  Mercury  of  the  Romans  was  not  much,  except  the  god  of  commerce. 


Fig.   4.— Staff 
AND  Sekpent  of 

-^SCULAPIUS. 


The  jEsculapian  Staff  and  Serpent.  57 

and  of  tnriung  the  two  into  friends.  Hence  the  presence 
of  the  two  serpents  on  the  wand,  the  virga  of  the 
Romans.  The  tradition  was  likel}"  in  the  nature  of  an 
after-tlionght.  If  tlie  two  serpents  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent two  contending  persons,  or  nations,  the  mission  of 
the  ambassador  with  liis  wand  or  mace,  the  symbol  of 
authority,  is  well  indicated. 

The  two  serpents  on  the  caducens  have  been  taken 
to  be  male  and  female,  and  in  an  amatory  mood.^  Thus, 
sa3^s  Aubrey,  "The  caduceus  of  Mercurie  is  adorned 
with  two  serpents  in  the  posture  of  generation. "^  Pliny 
expressed  an  opinion  similar  to  that  of  Aubrey.^  This 
view  was  adopted  by  the  London 
medical  pubUshers,  the  Churchills,  as 
will  be  seen  on  looking:  at  the  title- 
page  of  their  books  issued  until  re- 
cently. For  instance,  on  the  title-page 
of  Pettigrew's  "  Superstitions  Con- 
nected with  Medicine  and  Surgery," 
issued  in  1844,  between  two  concentric 

circles  surroundino-  the  caduceus,  are    Fig. 5— the  Cadu- 
"  '  CEUS  OF  Hermes. 

the  words,  Irrupta  tenet  copula,  with 

Literis  medicina  on  the  serpents.    Later,  the  first  phrase 

was  dropped  and  the  other  put  in  its  place.     For  some 

years  caduceus  and  all  have  very  properly  been  left  out. 

Hermes  was  accorded  some  functions  by  the  Greeks 

which  may  well  cause  the  physician  to  feel  that  it  is 

not  very  complimentary  to  associate  either  him  or  the 

caduceus  with  his  art,  even  if  he  be  one  who  reofards  it 

^  The  posture  only  approximates  that  assumed  in  the  act  of  genera- 
tion. In  this  act  the  two  serpents,  in  the  words  of  Aristotle,  "are  folded 
together  with  the  abdomens  opposite.  .  .  .  They  roll  themselves 
together  so  closely  that  they  seem  to  be  one  serpent  with  two  heads." 
Natural  History,  p.  103.    Bohn's  edition.    London,  1862. 

2  Remains  of  Gentilisme  and  Judaisme,  p.  38. 

*  Natural  History,  xxix,  12. 

3* 


58  31edical  Symbolism. 

cbieflj^  as  a  trade.  Thus,  Hermes,  being  an  adept  thief, 
was  classed  as  the  god  of  rogues.  And  this  brings  to 
mind  the  remark  of  some  one,  that,  if  medicine  be  a 
trade,  it  is  the  trade  of  all  others  the  most  exactlj^  cut 
out  for  a  rogue.  Again,  it  was  the  function  of  Hermes, 
very  like  that  of  the  archangel  Michael,  "  to  draw  the 
souls  from  hollow  graves,"  and  "  drive  them  down  the 
St^'gian  waves,"  with  his  caduceus,  as  we  are  told  by 
Yirgil.i  It  is  hardly  a  part  of  the  physician's  function, 
I  submit,  to  drive  souls  "  down  the  Stygian  waves  ;" 
certainh',  no  one  professes  to  do  it. 

•  JEiieid,  iv.  » 


CHAPTER  IX. 

^SCULAPIUS  AND  THE  SERPENT. 

The  serpent  is  undouLtedly  the  most  significant  of 
all  medical  symbols.  Even  -^sculapins  assumed  such  a 
form,  and  was  sometimes  so  represented  by  sculptors. 
It  was  to  him  the  most  sacred  of  all  animals.  Down 
through  the  ages  this  remarkable  fact  has  been  kept  in 
view,  and  to-day  it  is  almost  as  patent  as  ever. 

Xow,  what  is  the  explanation  of  the  serpent  as  a 
S3"mbol  in  medicine?  How  man}^  medical  men  can  sny? 
Several  explanations  have  currencj' ;  but  I  ma}^  candidl}'- 
state  that  none  of  these  are  quite  satisfactory;  and  I 
could  not  refer  to  an  acceptable  one  in  all  the  volumes 
in  which  such  information  might  be  expected  to  be 
found,  with  which  I  am  familiar.  Here,  then,  is  a  highly 
interesting  and  obvious  fact  to  physicians,  which  few  or 
none  completel}''  understand.  Can  I  cast  any  light  on 
it?  Some,  certainlj^;  but  just  how  much  I  must  leave 
to  the  intelligent  reader  to  judge,  after  perusing  this 
brief  but  comprehensive  chapter. 

The  serpent  in  medicine  is  meant  to  S3^mbolize  pru- 
dence, something  very  requisite  in  the  physician.  This 
opinion  is  one  often  expressed.  It  is  not  necessarily 
baseless.  To  be  ''  as  wise  as  a  serpent,"  and  to  have 
"the  subtlety  of  the  serpent,"  are  every-da}^  phrases. 
The  reptile  has  been  accorded  such  qualities  from  a 
ver3^  early  date.  De  Gubernatis  remarks  that  in  India 
it  is  still  "  revered  as  a  s^^mbol  of  ever^^  species  of 
learning.  "1 

It  is  often  said  that  the  serpent  in  medicine  is  meant 

•  Zoological  Mytliology,  p.  406. 

(59) 


60  Medical  Symbolism. 

to  S3^mbolize  the  power  of  the  art  to  produce  renovation 
or  rejuvenescence.  This  is  not  an  absurd  notion.  The 
basis  of  it  is  believed  to  be  the  periodical  renewal  of 
the  skin  of  the  animal.  This  has  long  attracted  atten- 
tion. In  a  precious  extant  fragment  of  the  very  ancient 
Phoenician  book  of  Sanchoniathon  it  is  said  of  the  ser- 
pent, "It  is  very  long  lived,  and  has  the  quality  not 
only  of  putting  off  its  age  and  assuming  a  second  youth, 
but  it  receives  a  greater  increase.  And  when  it  has  ful- 
filled the  a])pointed  measure  of  its  existence  it  con- 
sumes itself."^  Referring  to  its  reputed  longevit}'',  one 
intelligent  writer  says  :  "  This  quality  was  no  doubt  the 
cause  why  this  animal  entwined  round  a  staff  was  the 
symbol  of  health  and  the  distinctive  attribute  of  the 
classical  ^scuinpius  and  Hj'geia."^  At  any  rate,  to 
restore  people  to  health  and  renew  their  age  would  be 
worthy  emplo3nnent  for  any  one. 

Another  prevalent  idea  is,  that  tlie  serpent  in  medi- 
cine is  meant  to  symbolize  convalescence.  The  remark- 
able change  from  a  state  of  lethargy  to  one  of  active  life, 
which  the  reptile  undergoes  every  spring,  affords  some 
ground  for  it.  It  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  device  of 
the  Rinovati  Academ^^  as  will  be  seen  by  turning  to 
Mr3.  Pelliser's  interesting  book.^  Three  serpents  are 
represented  on  a  bank  gatliering  vigor  in  the  sunshine, 
in  the  strengthening  ra3's  of  Apollo.  The  educational 
interpretation  is  evidentl^^  quite  as  reasonable  as  the 
medical. 

Of  the  three  foregoing  explanations  of  the  S3^mbolic 
import  of  the  serpent  in  medicine,  it  must  be  said  that 

•  See  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  23.  Edition  by  Hodges.  London, 
1876. 

"^  McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  and  Religious 
Literature. 

'  Historic  Devices,  Badges,  and  War-Cries.    London,  1870, 


JSsculapius  and  the  Serpent,  61 

there  is  good  reason  to  hold  that  they  are  largely,  or 
entirely,  mere  after-thoughts.  Any  one  of  ingenious 
mind  could  suggest  several  others  just  as  worthy  of  ac- 
ceptance. But,  of  course,  such  a  mode  of  interpretation 
is  decidedly  illegitimate. 

The  idea  has  been  advanced  that  the  commonest 
of  the  species  of  serpent,  Elaphis  j^sculapii^  described 
above,  at  Epidaurus,  where  the  myth  of  the  Grecian  god 
of  medicine  first  took  definite  shape,  affords  an  adequate 
explanation  of  the  association  of  the  reptile  with  medi- 
cine. This  may  have  had  a  little  to  do  with  it.  I  can- 
not admit,  however,  that  it  did  more  than,  perhaps, 
emphasize  somewhat  the  association.  If  such  were  its 
origin,  the  association  could  not  be  viewed  otherwise 
than  as  incidental,  and  hence  the  serpent  might  be 
without  any  special  meaning. 

After  referring  to  some  strange  curative  virtue 
attributed  to  serpents,  Pliny  saj's :  "Hence  it  is  that 
the  snake  is  consecrated  to  ^sculapius.''^  Here  is  a 
specimen  of  them  given  by  the  rather  credulous  old  Ro- 
man:  "  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  for  all  injuries  in- 
flicted by  serpents,  and  those  even  of  an  otherwise 
incurable  nature,  it  is  an  excellent  remedy  to  apply  the 
entrails  of  the  serpent  itself  to  the  wound."  ^  The 
principle  is  obviously  the  same  as  that  illustrated  in  the 
old  custom  of  applying  a  hair  of  the  dog  to  cure  tlie 
wound  caused  by  the  bite  of  the  animal.  In  many  parts 
of  the  world,  the  serpent  has  been  accorded  great  virtue 
as  a  medicine,  and  in  China  and  elsewhere  such  is  the 
case  even  to  this  day.  In  fact,  apart  from  the  prepos- 
terous and  numerous  uses  to  which  it  is  put  b}'^  homoeo- 
pathic doctors,  is  not  the  venom  of  the  most  deadly 
species  declared  by  leading  members  of  the  profession 

*  Natural  History,  xxix.  ^  Ibid. 


62  Medical  Symbolism. 

to  be  a  capital  cure  for  various  serious  ills  ?  However, 
Dr.  D.  G.  Brinton  quotes  the  rather  striking  observatiou 
of  Agassiz,  that  "the  Maues  Indians,  who  live  between 
the  Upper  Tapnjos  and  Madeira  Rivers  in  Brazil,  when- 
ever they  assign  a  form  to  any  '  remedio,'  give  it  that  of 
a  serpent."  ^  But,  in  spite  of  the  wide  belief  in  the 
virtue  of  the  serpent  as  a  medicine,  I  cannot  accept  the 
opinion  of  Pliny,  tliat  it  affords  a  sufficient  explanation 
of  the  matter  in  question.  Its  actual  healing  properties 
were  assuredly  too  equivocal  to  merit  such  distinction. 
With  all  its  virtues,  soma  itself  received  little  or  no 
more. 

The  fabled  power  of  the  serpent  to  discover  herbs  of 
curative  virtues  has  been  suggested  as  an  explanation 
of  the  association  of  it  with  medicine.  This  is  based 
on  a  traditional  episode  in  the  liistor}^  of  ^sculapius, 
which  reminds  one  of  the  German  story  of  the  Snake 
Leaves,  told  by  Grimm. ^  As  regards  the  ^sculapian 
fable,  it  seems  that  on  one  occasion,  while  thinking 
what  treatment  to  resort  to  in  the  case  of  a  patient  of 
his,  Glaucus,  a  serpent  appeared  and  twined  itself 
around  his  staff;  he  killed  it,  whereupon  another  came 
bearing:  in  its  mouth  an  herb  with  which  it  restored  the 
dead  one  to  life.  The  god  used  the  same  herb  with  similar 
effect  on  the  human  sul)ject.^  The  extremely  miracu- 
lous feature  of  this  explanation  is  an  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  its  acceptance. 

It  may  be  safely  held  that  one  must  go  back  to  a 
time  long  anterior  to  that  of  ^sculapius  of  the  Greeks 
to  acquire  the  true  medical  import  of  the  serpent,  which 
has  been  so  chisel}"  associated  with  him.  There  is  excel- 
lent reason  for  believing  that  we  have  in  it  a  remnant  of 

•  Myths  of  the  New  World,  p.  3.    New  York,  18(58. 

«  Houiichold  Tales.  ^  gee  Hyginus.  Poet.  Astr.,  ii,  14. 


^sculapius  and  the  Seypent.  63 

that  ancient  and  wonderfulh'  wide-spread  cultus,  serpent- 
worship,  which  is  still  kept  up  b}"  the  Nag-as^  of  India 
and  others.  Epidanrus  was  favorabl}'  situated  for  com- 
munication with  Egypt,  a  countr}-  in  which  the  serpent 
played  a  great  religious  role  ' '  from  the  very  earliest 
period,"  as  shown  by  both  "written  and  monumental 
evidence,"  to  use  the  words  of  Cooper, ^  as  well  as  in 
later  times,  even  within  the  Christian  era,  when  the 
special  sect  of  Gnostics,  who  called  themselves  Ophitse, 
were  in  their  glory.  But,  in  truth,  serpent-worship  in 
Greece  did  not  begin  in  the  time  of  JEsculapius.  Bryant 
maintains  that  it  was  brought  into  Greece  by  Cadmus, 
who,  under  the  name  of  Taautus,  or  Thoth,  took  it  also 
to  both  Eg3'pt  and  Phoenicia  from  Babylonia.^ 

One  can  advance  sufficient  evidence  to  indicate  with 
considerable  conclusiveness  that  the  Egyptians  were  in 
the  habit  of  looking  to  a  serpentine  divinitj^  for  the  cure 
of  disease.  In  his  interesting  little  book,*  Sharpe  gives 
a  figure  of  a  serpent  wearing  the  double  crown  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Egypt,  on  a  pole  or  standard,  a  cut  of  which  is 
reproduced  (Fig.  6),  which  was  carried  in  the  periodical 
airing  processions  of  the  Eg^'ptian  divinities.  jS^ow,  it 
is  quite  certain  that  Moses,  and  his  people,  too,  were 
ver}^  familiar  with  this  figure  and  its  import ;  but,  at  any 
rate,  we  find  him  making  an  imitation  of  it,  in  his  jour- 
ney with  the  Israelites  in  the  Wilderness  ;  and  for  what 
purpose  ?     The  stor}^  is  told  in  the  Bible,  and  runs  thus  : 

*  The  literal  meaning  of  nagas  is  snakes.  In  liis  Indian  Arts  (London, 
1882),  Dr.  Birdwood  says  :  "The  worship  of  the  snake  still  suryiyes  every- 
where in  India,  and  at  Nagpur  was,  until  very  recently,  a  public  danger, 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  city  was  allowed  to  be  overrun  with  cobras." 
p.  83. 

"^  "Serpent-Myths  of  Ancient  EgjqDt,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  vol.  vi,  p.  321.    London,  1873. 
3  Mythology,  vol.  ii,  p.  460. 

*  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  36.    London,  1863. 


64 


Medical  Symbolism. 


"  And  Moses  made  a  serpent  of  brass  and  put  it  upon  a 
pole ;  and  it  came  to  pass  that  if  a  serpent  had  bitten 
any  man,  when  lie  beheld  the  serpent  of  brass  he  lived. "^ 
Verily,  there  is  the  Healer  in  essentially  the  same 
form  in  which  he  was  sometimes  embodied  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Hence,  it  is  sure  tliat  the  serpent,  as  a 
medical  symbol,  took  shape  before  the  time  of  ^scula- 
pius ;  long  before,  for  Moses  lived 
nearly  four  hundred  years  earlier 
than  he,  and,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
it  was  likely  far  from  new,  far  from 
being  unfamiliar  in  his  day.  Fergus- 
son  has  this  to  say  of  it :  "It  is  the 
first  record  we  have  of  actual  wor- 
ship being  performed  to  the  serpent ; 
and  it  is  also  remarkable,  as  the 
cause  of  this  adoration  is  said  to 
have  been  its  healing  powers."^ 

The  opinion  has  been  widely 
entertained  that  the  prototype  of 
the  brazen  serpent  of  Moses,  simply 
"  Nehushtan"-^  in  later  times,  was 
the  bonus  daemon,  the  Agathodaemon'^ 
of  the  Greeks,  Egyptians,  and 
others.  This  "  good  genius  "  was 
regarded  with  great  ftivor,  and 
doubtless  many  were  in  the  habit  of  according  it  power 
over  disease.  In  the  grove  of  Epidaurus,  as  in  Indian 
temples  and  elsewhere  among  early  peoples,  the  serpent 

*  Numbers,  xxi,  9. 

'  Tree  and  Serpent  Worship,  p.  8.  A  splendid  illustrated  publication, 
issued  by  the  government.  It  treats  principally  of  East  Indian  matters. 
London,  1878. 

=»  Brazen,    See  2  Kings,  xviii,  4. 

*  From  the  Greek  aya-&6g,  good,  and  daijuuv,  god,  soul,  fortune. 


Fig.  6.— The  Serpent 
Healek. 


JEsculapius  and  the  Serpent.  65 

was  the  genius  loci,  and  hence  the  Agathodsemon,  the 
bringer  of  health  and  good  fortune,  the  teacher  of  wis- 
dom, the  oracle  of  future  events.  One  was  kept  in  the 
Erechtheum,  close  to  the  sacred  olive-tree,  and  in  each 
of  many  other  temples.  One  was  to  be  found,  accord- 
ing to  Ebers,  "  in  every  temple  "  ^  in  Egypt. 

Evidence  has  recently  been  brought  forward  which 
goes  to  show  that  the  serpent  called  the  "good  genius" 
in  Egypt,  in  general,  was  in  the  part  familiar  to  the 
Israelites,  in  the  district  of  Suket,  called  also  the  dwell- 
ing-place of  Ankh,  "  the  Living  One,"  whose  chief  city 
was  Piton,2  regarded  as  the  simulacrum  of  the  sun-god 
Ra,  or,  rather,  Atum,  Turn,  or  Tom,  the  sun  as  he  sets.^ 
Brugsch,  who  has  studied  the  matter  carefull}^,  says : 
"  The  god  Tom  represents  solely  the  Egyptian  type,  cor- 
responding to  the  divinity  of  Piton,  who  is  called  by 
the  name  of  Ankh, and  surnamed  'the  great  god.'  .  .  . 
A  serpent  to  which  the  Egyptian  texts  give  the  epithet 
of  '  the  Magnificent,'  'the  Splendid,'  was  regarded  as 
the  living  S3anbol  of  the  god  of  Piton.  It  bore  the 
name  of  Kereh  ;  that  is,'  the  Smooth.'  And  this  serpent 
again  transports  us  into  the  camp  of  the  Children  of 
Israel  in  the  Wilderness ;  it  recalls  to  us  the  brazen 

^  Uarda,  vol.  ii,  p.  38. 

''One  of  tlie  Pharaoh's  "treasure  cities,  Pithom  and  Raamses." 
Exodus,  i,  11. 

3  On  the  Egyptian  obelisk,  originally  from  On  (Heliopolis),  the  great 
seat  of  learning,  now  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  whose  shadow,  doubtless, 
Joseph  at  times  made  love  to  the  high-priest's  daughter,  and  Moses  learned 
the  meaning  of  hieroglyphics,  occurs  the  phrase,  "  Tum,  lord  of  the  city 
of  On  ;"  and,  what  is  of  more  interest  in  this  connection,  one  which  reads, 
"The  god  Tum,  who  gives  life."  I  may  add  a  stanza  from  a  hymn  addressed 
to  Tum  :— 

"  Come  to  me,  O  thou  sun  ; 

Horus  of  the  horizon,  give  me  help. 
Thou  art  he  that  giveth  help  ; 
There  is  no  help  without  thee." 

—Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  vi,  p.  100. 
C» 


66  Medical  Symbolism. 

serpent  of  Moses,  to  which  the  Hebrews  offered  the  per- 
fumes of  incense,  until  the  time  when  King  Hezekiah^ 
decreed  the  abolition  of  this  ancient  serpent-worship."  ^ 
He  further  says:  "  I  will  not  venture  to  decide  the  ques- 
tion whetlier  the  god,  '  He  who  lives,'  of  the  Egj^ptian 
text  is  identical  with  the  Jehovah  of  the  Hebrews,  but, 
at  all  events,  ever3^thing  tends  to  this  belief  when  we 
remember  that  the  name  of  Jehovah^  contains  the  same 
meaning  as  the  Eg3q)tian  word  Ankh,  'He  who  lives.'  "* 
These  are  highly  interesting  statements  of  this  learned 
Eg.yptologist. 

Bearing  in  mind  what  has  just  been  said,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  turn  to  wdiat  Solomon  (?)  says  about  the 
"brazen  serpent,"  and  the  cures  wrought  by  it.  In  the 
"  Book  of  Wisdom,"  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  symbol,  "a 
sio-n  of  salvation  :"^  and,  it  is  said  :  "  For  it  was  neither 
herb  nor  molifying  plaster  that  healed  them,  but  thy 
word,  0  Lord,  which  healeth  all  things."  ^  And  to  this 
it  is  added  :  "  For  it  was  thou,  0  Lord,  that  hath  power 
of  life  and  death  and  leadest  doAvn  to  the  gates  of  death 
and  brino-est  back  as.ain."'' 

^  See  2  Kings,  xviii,  5. 

^  Egypt  Under  the  Pharaohs,  vol.  ii,  p.  376.  Second  edition.  London, 
1881. 

3  It  is  well  known  that  this  is  not  the  correct  form  of  the  name.  It  was 
lost  at  an  early  day,  and  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament  in  any 
form.  It  was  not  to  be  spoken.  Much  interest  has  always  been  taken  in 
this  remarkable  word.  According  to  a  recently-translated  Assyrian  in- 
scription, the  correct  form  of  the  name  is  Ya-u,  or  Yahn.  Mr.  Hodges 
dwells  on  this  highly-interesting  discovery  in  his  edition  of  Cory's  Ancient 
Fragments,  p.  28. 

*  Op.  cit.,  p.  377. 

«  Book  of  Wisdom,  ii,  6.  "  Ibid.,  xv,  12. 

■"  The  power  of  healing  was  a  prominent  and  popular  characteristic 
of  the  god  of  the  Hebrews.  "I  am  the  Lord  that  healeth  thoe"  (Ex.,  xv, 
2(1)  ;  "I  will  restore  health  unto  thee  and  I  will  heal  thee  of  thy  wounds, 
.,aith  the  Lord"  (.ler.,  xxx,  17);  "He  healeth  the  broken  in  heart  and 
bindeth  up  their  wounds''  (Ps.  cxlvii,  3)  ;  "  Heal  me,  O  Lord,  and  I  shall  be 
healed"  (Jer.,  xvii,  11) ;  and  other  similar  passages  are  met  with  in  the 


uEaculapius  and  the  Serpent.  67 

Christian  writers  have  generally  explained  the  brazen 
serpent  to  be  a  S3'mbol  of  God,  or  the  Savior.  TJie 
writer  of  the  article  on  medicine,  in  Smith's  "Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,"  sa3'S  that  even  in  the  Talmud  it  is  ac- 
knowledged "  that  the  healing  power  lay  not  in  the 
brazen  serpent  itself,  but  as  soon  as  they  feared  the 
Most  High  and  uplifted  their  hearts  to  the  heavenly 
father  they  were  healed,  and  in  default  of  this  they 
were  brought  to  nought.'  Thus  the  brazen  serpent  was 
symbolical  only."  A  serpent  clinging  to  a  cross  was 
formerly  much  used  as  an  emblem  of  Christ.  In  fact, 
a  sort  of  Christian  serpent-worship  was  for  a  long  period 
greatly  in  vogue  among  many  besides  the  professed 
Ophitse. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  sa}^,  that  the  naja 
haje,  naia,  or  asp,  the  serpent  shown  in  the  cut  of  the 
brazen  serpent,  was  the  species  alwa3's,or  nearlj-  always, 
taken  to  represent  the  spirit  pervading  nature,  the  Aga- 
thodsemon,  or  Cnuphis,  whom  the  Egyptians  were  wont 
to  adore  as  the  creator  of  the  world.  It  was  the  Urseus 
or  Basiliskos  of  the  Pharaohs.  It  is  from  three  to  five 
feet  in  length.  It  is  extremel}'  venomous.  In  appear- 
ance, it  resembles  the  Indian  cobra  de  capello,^  but  has 
no  spectacle-marking  on  its  head.  In  hieroglyphics  it 
sio-nifies  "  goddess." 

As  to  "  the  serpent  of  the  burning  bite  which  de- 
stro3^ed  the  Children  of  Israel,"  I  ma3^  sa3^,  in  the  words 
of  an  authoritative  work,  "  Either  the  cerastes  or  the 
naja  liaje  or  any  other  venomous  species  frequenting 
Arabia  ma3"  denote  it."^  The  Vij)era  cerastes  is  small, 
horned,  burrows  in  sand,  and  is  ver3'  venomous.  Hero- 
Bible.  Indeed,  the  curing  of  diseases  has  always  been  largely  resorted  to 
when  the  claim  of  divinity  has  been  brought  forward.    It  is  a  deceptive 

test. 

*  Naia  tripudians.  "^  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


68  Medical  Symbolism. 

(lotus  was  led  to  believe  that  it  was  *'  perfectly  harm- 
less," ^ — a  great  mistake.  It  was  used  to  represent  the 
letter  f.  Says  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  :  "  As  Herodotus 
does  not  notice  the  asp,  it  is  possible  that  he  may  have 
attributed  to  the  cerastes  the  honor  that  really  belonged 
to  that  sacred  snake."^  This  mistake  is  still  frequently 
made. 

But  the  association  of  the  serpent  with  JEsculapius, 
as  a  remnant  of  serpent-worship,  can  be  explained  with- 
out going  to  the  Egyptian  Turn,  or  any  other  foreign 
sun-god.  One  has  but  to  turu  to  Apollo,  to  whom,  as 
in  the  case  of,  perhaps,  all  sun-gods,  the  reptile  was 
sacred.^ 

The  question  now  is,  then,  what  was  the  reason  for 
the  association  of  the  serpent  with  Apollo  ?  The  usual 
reply  is:  the  destruction  by  him  of  the  Python,  which 
is  essentially  the  same  as  the  Aub  or  Ob,  or,  as  it  is 
often  given,  Typhon,  of  the  Egyptians,  an  evil  monster 
which  was  probably  taken  primarily  to  represent  harm 
resulting  from  the  periodical  overflow  of  the  Nile. 
Homer  says  : — 

*'  With  his  shining  shaft  Apollo  slew 
That  ugly  dragon,  hideous  to  the  view, 
Which  grew,  long  nourished  in  its  slimy  den, 
A  monster  horrible,  the  dread  of  men."* 

Admitting,  however,  that  Apollo  overcame  a  mythical 
serpent,  like  many  related  divinities,  from  the  Yedic 
sun-god,  Indra,  the  destroyer  of  Ahis  down,  does  not 

•  Herodotus,  ii,  74. 

«  Note  to  ii,  74,  in  George  Rawlinson's  edition  of  Herodotus. 

»  The  reader  may  turn  withadvantnge  to  Dr.  J.  S.Phene's  interesting 
illustrated  essay  on  "  Prehistoric  Traditions  and  Customs  in  Connection 
with  Sun  and  Serpent  Worship,"  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  vol.  viii,  p.  321.    I>ondon,  1875. 

«  Hymn  to  Apollo.  Translation  by  C.  C.  Conwell,  M.D.  Philadelphia, 
1830. 


^aculapius  and  the  Serpent.  60 

afford  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  matter  under  dis- 
cussion. The  Agathodaemon  is  infinitel}"  preferable  to 
Tjphon  as  the  prototype  of  the  serpent  of  ^sculapius. 
It,  indeed,  was  the  reptile  sacred  to  Apollo  as  well  as 
Turn. 

A  study  of  the  origin  of  the  association  of  the  good 
serpent  with  Apollo  and  Ra-Tuni  and  other  sun-gods 
is  interesting.  In  the  search  for  it  one  may  get  a  clue 
to  it  in  comparative  mythology.  The  close  resemblance 
to  one  another  of  Apollo,  Ra,  Baal-Samen  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians, Shamas  of  the  Assyrians,  and  other  sun-gods, 
would  lead  one  to  think  that  there  was  an  archetypal 
one ;  and  to  find  this  original  one  the  intelligent  mind 
wonld  naturall}^  look  to  the  East,  to  the  region  about 
the  lower  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  with 
a  reasonable  expectation  of  discovering  it  there. ^  For 
among  the  Turanians,  in  that  localit}^  the  worship  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  undoubtedly  first  acquired  promi- 
nence; and  in  the  same  localit}'',  too,  among  the  same 
people,  the  worship  of  serpents,  according  to  Br3^ant,2 
who  has  written  learnedl}^  on  the  subject,  began,  and,  as 
Fergusson  sa3^s,  not  only  originated  but  "  spread  thence, 
as  from  a  centre,  to  every  country  or  land  of  the  old 
world  in  which  a  Turanian  people  settled,"^  becoming 
adopted  to  some  extent  also  by  Semites  and  Arj^ans. 
From  Hea,  one  of  the  three  great  gods  (Ana,  Hea,  and 
Bel)  of  the  Accadio-Sumerians,  and,  later,  of  the  people 
of  Bab\donia,  doubtless  sprang  some  features  of  the 
Apollo  myth,  and  possibly  in  part  through  Horus  of  the 
Egyptians.     To    Baal-Samen,  the  baal  of  the   heavens, 

*  No  doubt  the  great  home  of  the  Inclo-Europeans  furnishes  a  closely 
corresponding  myth.  But  there  is  good  reason  to  hold  that  the  main 
features  of  the  great  astronomical  mytlis  antedated  the  Vedas.  Grecian 
mythology  was  largely  derived  from  Egypt  and  Phoenicia. 

2  Mythology,  vol.  ii,  p,  197.  *  Tree  and  Serpent  Worship,  p.  3. 


To  Medical  Symbolism, 

of  the  Phoenicians,  Apollo  had  many  points  of  re- 
semblance. It  has  been  maintained,  however,  that 
Apollo  was  "a  pure  growth  of  the  Greek  mind.''^  He 
was  so  in  part. 

Speaking  of  Hea,  Lenormant  says  that  it  was  he  "  that 
animated  matter  and  rendered  it  fertile,  that  penetrated 
the  universe  and  directed  and  inspired  it  with  life."^  As 
Waaler  was  believed  to  be  the  vehicle  of  all  life  and  the 
source  of  generation,  he  sprung  from  the  ocean  and  was 
regarded  as  amphibious.  Oannes^  was  the  name  by 
which  he  was  known  by  the  Greeks.  Like  Dagon,  of 
the  Philistines,  whose  prototype  he  was, 
it  was  usual  to  give  him  the  combined  form 
of  a  fish  and  a  man.  One  of  the  symbols 
of  him,  according  to  Rawlinson,*  was  a 
serpent,  an  illustration  of  which  is  repro- 
duced here.  He  was  the  god  of  life,  and, 
significantly  enough,  the  literal  meaning 
of  his  name  is  serpent  as  well  as  life. 
Here,  then,  we  have  the  serpent  signifj'- 
^^r'^'^\?Jf^'     i»^    life.      This    is    a   very    noteworthy 

BOIi  OF  MEA.  ^  J  J 

fact.  In  an  interesting  paper  read  in 
1872  before  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great 
Britain,  by  Mr.  C.  S.  Wake,  it  is  ver3^  properlj^  said: 
"  It  is  probable  that  the  association  with  the  serpent  of 
the  idea  of  healing  arose  from  the  still  earlier  recogni- 
tion of  that  animal  as  a  symbol  of  life."* 

It  is  not  amiss  to  remark,  in  this  connection,  that  it 


'  Murray's  Mythology,  p.  117.  '  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  114. 

'  A  graphic  account  of  this  mystic  creature  is  given  in  an  extant 
fragment  of  Berosus.  He  introduced  all  civilizing  arts.  See  Cory's 
Ancient  Fragments,  p.  59.    Hodges'  edition. 

*  Five  Great  Monarchies,  vol.  i,  p.  122. 

*  "The  Origin  of  Serpent AVorship,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  vol.  ii,  p.  373. 


JEsculajyius  and  the  Serpent, 


71 


is  a  curious  fact  that  the  American  Indians  associated  a 
serpent  with  the  great  sun-god,  or,  rather,  the  god  of 
light,  Manabozho,^  a  healing  divinit}^,  tlie  one  that  insti- 
tuted the  sacred  Medicine-Feast.  It  is  observed  by 
Miss  Emerson  that  "Apollo,  as  a  god  of  medicine,  was 
originally  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  serpent,^  and 
men  worshipped  him  as  a  helper;  and  we  trace  a  similar 
idea  among  the  Indians  relative  to  Manabozho.  And  a 
farther  association  of  ideas  suggests  the  mystic  god, 
Unk-ta-he,  the  god  of  waters,  pictured  as  a  serpent,  who 
was  believed  to  have  power  over 
diseases."  ^  To  this  I  may  add 
that  Hea  sprang  from  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  was  regarded  as  the  god 
of  waters  as  well  as  of  life. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written 
on  serpent-worship,  "  the  first  vari- 
ation," sa3's  Br3^ant,  "  from  the 
purer  Sabaism;"*  and  the  number 
of  suggested  explanations  of  the 
curious  cultus  is  almost  legion.  I 
hesitate  about  touching  on  the  subject ;  but  some  state- 
ments on  it  are  called  for,  to  render  the  treatment  of 
the  matter  on  hand  reasonably  complete. 

In  a  recent  able  work,  Mr.  C.  F.  Keary,  of  the  British 
Museum,  presents  some  interesting  facts  and  inferences 
on  the  origin  of  the  worship.  He  maintains  that  the 
tree,  mountain,  and  river  were  the  three  great  primitive 
fetich-gods,  and  forcibly  argues  that  a  serpent  was  the 
symbol  of  the  last,  which,  it  ma}^  be  noted,  is  nearly 

1  Dr.  Brinton  gives  the  name  as  Michabo,  He  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  this  great  Algonkin  myth  in  his  American  Hero-Myths.  Phila- 
delphia, 1882. 

2  Partly  true.  =»  Indian  Mj'ths,  p.  45.    Boston,  1884. 
*  Mythology,  vol.  ii,  p.  458. 


Fig.  8.— Manabozho. 


12  Medical  Symbolism. 

alwa3'S  a  life-giving  power,  an  early  and  substantial  type 
of  the  fontaine  de  jouvence.  Without  pretendijig  to  ac- 
count for  their  original  worship,  he  "  takes  it  for  certain 
that,  at  a  very  early  time,  rivers  became  through  sym- 
bolism confounded  with  serpents."^ 

Remnants  of  the  three  fetich-gods  of  Mr.  Keary  are 
preserved  in  later  and  more  abstract  cults,  and  may  be 
largely  found  in  Indo-European  mythologies.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  appear  to  have  regarded  rivers  and  mount- 
ains with  particular  favor,  while  the  Celts  and  Teutons 
were  more  especially  devoted  to  trees.  The  wells  of 
knowledge  and  of  magic  and  the  fountains  of  youth 
which  are  met  with  in  myth  and  legend  are  simpl^^  the 
narrowing  to  particular  instances  of  the  magic, the  sacred- 
ness,  and  the  healing  gifts  which  were  once  universally 
attributed  to  streams.  The  monstrous  python  which 
Apollo  encountered  and  destroyed  at  Delphi  was,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Kear}^,  a  river,  and  a  harmful  one^ — the  river 
of  death.  "  The  reptile  was,  we  know,"  says  he,  "  before 
all  things,  sacred  to  ^sculapius,  and  M^ns  kept  in  his 
house,  as,  for  example,  in  the  great  temple  at  Epidaurns. 
It  would  seem  that  the  sun-god  has  the  special  mission 
of  overcoming  and  absorbing  unto  himself  this  form  of 
fetich.  This  is  wh}^  Apollo  slays  the  python,  and  why 
the  snake  is  sacred  to  JEsculapius."  ^ 

Mr.  Kear}^  was  by  no  means  the  first,  I  may  sa}^,  to 
emphasize  the  association  of  serpents  with  rivers.  The 
fact  has  been  dwelt  on  by  Dr.  Brinton.  Sa3's  tiiis  dis- 
tinguished student  of  American  archaeology :  "  The 
sinuous  course  of  the  serpent  is  like  nothing  so  much  as 
that  of  a  winding  river;  which,  therefore,  we  often  call 
serpentine.     So  did  the  Indians.     Kennebec, a  stream  in 

•  Outlines  of  Primitive  Belief,  p.  75.    London  and  New  York,  1882. 
9  Ibid.,  p.  77. 


j^sculaphis  and  the  Serpent.  73 

Maine,  in  the  Algonkin,  means  snake,  and  Antietam,  the 
creek  in  Maryland  of  tragic  celebrit}^,  in  an  Iroquois 
dialect,  has  the  same  significance.  How  easil}^  could 
savages,  construing  the  figure  literally,  make  the  serpent 
a  river-  or  water-  god."  ^ 

1  believe,  however,  tljat  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  hold 
that  the  serpent  was  at  any  time  exclusively  a  sj^mbol  of 
the  river.  Both  Mr.  Kearj'  and  Dr.  Brinton  say  as  much. 
In  the  old  world,  as  well  as  in  the  new,  it  was  widel}^ 
recognized  as  a  symbol  of  lightning,  and  believed  to 
Lave  power  over  wind  and  rain. 

Some  have  turned  to  the  heavens  for  an  explanation 
of  serpent-worship.  Thus,  Mr.  Arthur  Lillie,  in  an  in- 
teresting little  work,  sa3^s:  "  Like  all  old  religious  ideas, 
the  serpent-symbol  was,  probabl}',  in  the  first  instance, 
astronomical. 2  Two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirtj^- 
six  3'ears  before  Christ,  a  large  star  was  within  one  degree 
of  the  celestial  pole.  This  was  the  ^  of  Draco. "^  Much 
interest  was  taken  in  this  star  of  Draco,  formerl}^,  as  Mr. 
Proctor  says,  "the  polar  constellation"*  in  different 
countries,^  as,  for  instance,  in  Egypt.  In  their  studies 
of  the  great  pyramid  Jizeh,  both  Proctor  and  Piazzi 
Sm3'th^  dwell  on  the  sul)ject  at  length.'^  The  passage 
from  the  north,  which  slants  downward  at  an  angle  of 

'  Myths  of  the  New  World,  p.  107. 

2  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that,  according  to  Miss  Emerson,  "it  is 
probable  that  the  Indian  derived  the  sacred  symbols  of  his  worship  from 
the  configuration  of  the  constellations."    Indian  Myths,  p.  316. 

3  Buddha  and  Early  Buddhism,  p.  7.    London,  1881. 
*  The  Great  Pyramid,  p.  100.    London,  1883. 

^  In  an  article  on  the  "Astronomy  and  Astrology  of  the  Babylonians," 
Mr.  Sayce  says :  "Next  to  the  planets  in  importance  was  the  polar  star, 
called  Tir  anna,  or  Gagan-same,  or  'Judge  of  the  Heaven,'  to  which  a 
special  treatise  was  devoted  in  Sargon's  Library."  See  Transactions  of  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  vol.  iii,  p.  206. 

^  Our  Inheritance  in  the  Great  Pyramid. 

'  The  constellation  of  Draco  lies  near  to  and  to  the  north  of  "the 
Dipper,"  or  Great  Bear,  and  is  easily  distinguished. 

4    D 


74  Medical  St/mbolism. 

26°  17'  into  the  immense  structure,  would  seem  to  have 
been  constructed  so  thiit  A  of  Draco  shone  down  it. 
When  this  was  the  case,  the  star  was  3°  42'  from  the 
pole,  which  was  its  position  both  about  2170  and  3850  B.C. 
"  We  conclude,"  says  Proctor,  "with  considerable  con- 
fidence, that  it  was  about  one  of  the  two  dates,  3350  and 
2170  B.C.,  that  the  erection  of  the  great  pyramid  began, 
and  from  the  researches  of  p]gyptologists  it  has  become 
all  but  certain  that  the  earlier  of  these  dates  is  very  near 
the  correct  epoch."  ^  Smyth  takes  2170  B.C.  as  the  cor- 
rect date,  but  his  unscientific  method  of  study  renders 
him  an  unreliable  authority.  The  question  is  highly 
interesting  and  important. 

However,  the  constellation  of  Draco  was  represented 
in  ancient  astronomy  by  a  tortuous  serpent,  either  alone 
or  in  connection  with  a  tree.  Those  familiar  with  the 
description  of  the  shield  of  Hercules, ^  attributed  to 
Hesiod,  and  which,  it  is  believed,  was  suggested  by  a 
Zodiac  temple^  of  the  Chaldeans,  imitations  of  which 
were  to  be  found  in  Eg3q3t  and  elsewhere,  will  recall  the 
reference  to  Draco,*  as  follows  : — 

"The  scaly  terror  of  a  dragon  coil'd 
Full  in  the  central  field ;  unspeakable; 
With  eyes  oblique,  retorted,  that  aslant 
Shot  gleaming  flame  ;  his  hollow  jaw  was  fill'd. 
Dispersedly  with  jagged  fangs  of  white, 
Grim,  unapproachable."  * 

It  is  hardly  to  be  inferred  from  this  description,  I 

>  Op.  ciL,  p.  101. 

*  Homer's  description  of  the  shield  of  Achilles  is  shorter,  and  was 
probably  suggested  by  the  same  thing.    Iliad,  xviii. 

3  See  pictures  of  such  in  Astronomical  Myths,  by  Blake,  London,  1877. 
Also,  In  Rawlinson's  Five  Great  Monarchies. 

*  It  is  believed  that  it  is  referred  to  in  Job,  in  the  verse  reading,  "His 
spirit  hath  adorned  the  heavens  and  his  obstetric  hand  brought  forth  the 
winding  seri)ent''  (xxvi,  18,  Donai  version).    Tlie  authorized  is  not  literal. 

*  The  Shield  of  llei'cules.    Translation  by  Elton. 


jEscalapiiis  and  the  Serpent.  75 

maj^  remark,  that  the  worship  of  Draco  would  be  one  of 
love.  Yet,  Rawlinson  says  :  "  The  stellar  name  of  Hea 
was  Kimmut ;  and  it  is  suspected  that  in  this  aspect  he 
was  identified  with  the  constellation  Draco,  which  is  per- 
haps the  Kimmah  ^  of  Scripture.  "^  This  is  an  interesting- 
statement  when  taken  in  connection  with  what  has  been 
already  said  about  Hea.  To  the  Accadians  and  others 
the  north  was  a  favorable  point,  being  the  source  of  cool, 
vivifjang  breezes. 

But,  whether  from  fear  or  not,  Draco  inspired  wide- 
spread attention  and  worship.  Lillie  remarks  that  the 
serpent  of  the  "  three  precious 
gems  "  of  the  Buddhist,  the  serpent, 
sun,  and  tree,  the  A.  U.  M.,  is  Draco 
at  the  pole.  The  Tria  Ratna,  or 
three  precious  symbols  of  the  faith, 
have,  in  the  representation  given, 
their  earliest  emblem,  except,  per- 
haps, the  swastika,^  or  cross,  which 
was  doubtless  formed  at  one  time 

of  two  s:ornpnf«;  *  Fig.  9. -The  Buddhist 

oi  two  serpents.  ^^^^  ratna. 

In  the  illustration,  the  serpent 
represents  the  male  and  the  staff  the  female  or  negative 
principle.     It  has  been  asserted  that  we  have  in  it  the 
prototype  of  the  caduceus  of  Hermes. 

The  assumption  of  the  serpent  as  a  totem, ^  or  sym.- 
bol,  of  a  family  or  tribe  has  been  held — as,  for  example, 

*  Translated  Pleiades.    Job,  ix,  9  ;  xxxviii,  31 ;  and  Amos,  v,  8. 

^  Five  Great  Monarchies,  vol.  i,  p.  122.  See  also  liis  edition  of  Hero- 
dotus, vol.  i,  p.  600. 

3  Those  interested  in  this  symbol  should  consult  Schliemann's  Troy 
and  its  Remains. 

*  The  swastika  was  so  formed  by  Indians,  See  illustration  in  Emer- 
son's Indian  Myths,  p.  10. 

'  Totem  is  an  Algonkin  word,  signifying  to  have  or  possess.  It  repre- 
sented, among  the  Indians,  the  social  unit  or  clan,  the  gens  of  the  Romans. 


76  Medical  Symbolism. 

by  Mr.  McLennan  ^  and  Sir  Jolm  Lubbock^ — to  afford  an 
explanation  of  the  origin  and  practice  of  serpent-worship. 
This  honor  was  no  doubt  accorded  the  reptile  at  a  very 
early  period  and  in  different  parts  of  the  world  ;  and  it 
is  still  done  by  the  Nagas  of  India  and  others.  In  speak- 
ing of  Parium,  a  city  of  the  Troad,  Strabo  saj^s  :  "  It  is 
here  the  story  is  related  that  the  Ophiogeneis  have  some 
affinity  with  the  serpent  tribe.  .  .  .  According  to 
fable  the  founder  of  the  race  of  Ophiogeneis,  a  hero,  was 
transformed  from  a  serpent  into  a  man.  He  was,  per- 
haps, one  of  the  African  Psylli."  The  power  of  curing  by 
touch  persons  bitten  by  serpents^  was  claimed  b}'  this 
tribe.  David  would  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  ser- 
pent familj',  as  appears  from  the  name  of  his  ancestor, 
Naasson  ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  brazen 
serpent  found  by  Hezekiah,  in  the  Temple  of  Solomon, 
was  a  symbol  of  it.  The  friendliness  of  David  to  the 
king  of  Ammon  is  thus  explained.*  Speaking  of  rattle- 
snakes, it  is  said,  in  Miss  Emerson's  work,  "  These  crea- 
tures were  so  highly  esteemed  that  to  have  a  serpent 
as  his  totem  elevated  an  Indian  chief  above  his 
brothers.  "5 

The  fact  of  the  same  word  meaning  both  serpent  and 
life  has  been  believed  to  cast  light  on  the  origin  of  the 
worship  of  serpents.  After  stating  that  the  reptile  was 
always  a  symbol  of  life  and  health  in  Egypt  and  other 
countries,  the  Abbe  Pluche  gives  as  the  reason,"  because 
among  most  of  the  Eastern  nations,  as  the  Phoenicians, 
Hebrews,  Arabians,  and  others,  with  the  language  of 
which  that  of  Egypt  had  an  affinity,  the  word  heve  or 
hava  equally   signifies   the  life  and   the   serpent.     The 

*  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  vi  ami  vii.    N.  S, 

«  Tlie  Origin  of  Civilization  and  the  Primitive  Condition  of  Man,  1870. 

»  Strabo,  xiii,  1.         *  1  Chronicles,  xix,  2.         ^  Indian  Myths,  p.  44. 


^sculapius  and  the  Serpent.  77 

name  of  Him  ivho  ^s,  the  great  name  of  God,  Jov  or 
Jehova,  thence  draws  its  et3'mology.  Heve^  or  the  name 
of  the  common  mother  of  mankind,  comes  likewise  from 
the  same  word.  Life  could  not  be  painted,  but  it  might 
be  marked  out  by  the  figure  of  the  animal  which  bears 
its  name."^  According  to  Lenormant,^  one  of  the 
generic  names  in  the  Assyrian-Semitic  tongue  is  havon, 
like  the  Arabian  hiyah,  both  derived  from  the  root 
hdvahj  to  live.  From  the  same  root  came  the  Latin 
ave,  a  wish  of  good  health,  and  also  sevum,  the  life. 
The  asp  still  bears  the  name  of  naja  haje. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  American 
Indians,  as  well  as  Eastern  peoples,  made  use  of  the 
serpent  as  a  sj-mbol  of  life.  The  belief  that  the  animal 
had  power  over  the  fertilizing  summer  showers  was 
probably  at  the  bottom  of  it,  as  well  as  its  title  to  god 
of  fruitfulness.  Says  Dr.  Brinton  :  "  Because  the  rattle- 
snake, the  lightning  symbol,  is  thus  connected  with  the 
food  of  man,  and  itself  seems  never  to  die,  but  annually 
to  renew  its  youth,  the  Algonkins  called  it  'grand- 
father,' and  king  of  snakes.  They  feared  to  injure  it. 
They  believed  it  could  grant  prosperous  breezes  or 
raise  disastrous  tempests.  Crowned  with  the  lunar 
crescent,  it  was  the  constant  symbol  of  life  in  their 
picture-writing."^  In  the  language  of  the  Algonkins 
and  of  the  Dakotas,  the  words  manito  and  waken ^  which 
express  divinity  in  its  widest  sense,  also  signify  serpent. 

Mr.  Wake  entertains  the  opinion  that  the  mainspring 
of  serpent-worship  was  a  belief  that  the  animal  was 
really  the  embodiment  of  a  deceased  human  being ;  or, 

*  The  History  of  the  Heavens.  Translated  from  the  French  by  J.  B. 
de  Freval.  Two  volumes.  London,  1741,  vol.  i,  p.  42.  The  first  volume 
is  a  very  able  and  interesting  mythological  production. 

^  Beginnings  of  History,  p.  114. 

«  Myths  of  the  New  World,  p.  120. 


T8  Medical  Symbolism. 

ill  other  words,  that  the  worship  was  ancestral  in 
character.  He  says :  "  The  serpent  has  been  viewed 
witli  awe  or  veneration  from  primeval  times  and  almost 
universally  as  a  re-embodiment  of  a  deceased  human 
being ;  and  as  such  there  were  ascribed  to  it  the  attri- 
butes of  life  and  wisdom  and  the  power  of  healing."^ 

But  little,  however,  in  what  has  been  said  throws 
much  light  on  the  main  point  at  issue,  namely,  why  the 
serpent  should  be  yielded  worship.  The  cause  must  be 
souglit  for,  to  some  extent,  in  peculiarities  of  the  animal 
itself.  And  it  has  peculiarities  enough.  Remarkable 
in  form  and  in  mode  of  locomotion,  and  in  some  species 
possessed  of  deadly  venom,  one  might  well  regard  it 
with  admiration  and  awe.  Then,  its  longevity  and 
apparent  power  of  renewing  its  age  serve  to  make  it  a 
very  extraordinary  creature.  The  opinion  lias  been 
expressed^  that  its  power  to  glide  along  without  limbs, 
like  the  lieavenly  bodies,  was  the  reason  why  it  was 
held  to  be  sacred.  No  doubt  its  remarkable  power  of 
motion  in  the  absence  of  limbs  forcibl}^  impressed  the 
ancients. ^"^  Solomon  himself  said  that  one  of  the  four 
things  he  could  not  understand  was  "  the  way  of  a 
serpent  upon  a  rock.''* 

Herbert  Spencer  maintains  that  the  first  step  toward 
the    worship    of  serpents    and    other   animals  was   the 

*  "The  Origin  of  Serpent  Worship,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Institute,  vol.  ii,  p.  373. 

2  By  Plutarch,  in  Isis  and  Osiris. 

3  In  an  extant  fragment  from  Sanchoniathon,  after  the  statement 
that  "Taautus  first  consecrated  the  basilisk  and  introduced  the  worship 
of  the  serpent  tribe,  in  which  he  was  followed  by  the  Phoenicians  and 
Egyptians,"  it  is  said  of  the  animal  that  it  is  "the  most  inspired  of  all  the 
reptiles  and  of  afiery  nature,  inasmuch  as  it  exhibits  an  incredible  celerity, 
moving  by  its  spirit  without  either  hands  or  feet  or  any  of  those  external 
organs  by  which  other  animals  ettect  their  motion."  See  Cory's  Ancient 
Fragments,  p.  22.    Edition  by  Hodges. 

*  Proverbs,  xxx,  19. 


j^sculapius  and  the  Serpent.  79 

naming  or,  rather,  nicknaming  of  men  after  creatures  to 
which  they  bore  some  points  of  resemblance.  Thus, 
from  having  apparently,  like  Holmes's  Elsie  Yenner, 
some  of  the  qualities  of  a  snake,  one  might  be  compared 
with  the  animal,  and  so  named  after  it.  Then  the 
descendants,  out  of  reoard  for  their  ancestor, ^  mi2:ht 
take  the  name,  or,  in  other  words,  accept  the  snake  as 
their  totem. 

Although  the  ^sculapian  serpent  was  innocent,  it 
was  mostly  a  harmful  species  which  received  worship. 
The  asp  of  the  Egj^ptians  and  the  cobra  of  the  East 
Indians  are  decidedly  venomous.  Under  the  name  of 
uj'seiLS  the  asp  was  a  sj^mbol  of  royalty  in  ancient  Egypt. 
Ebers  makes  Rameses  sa}^ :  "  M}^  predecessors  chose 
the  poisonous  ureeus  as  the  emblem  of  their  authorit}', 
for  we  can  cause  death  as  quickly  and  as  certainly  as 
the  venomous  snake. "^  The  American  Indians  were 
dcA'oted  to  the  rattlesnake,  which  is  extremel}'  venomous. 
Thus,  says  Dr.  Brinton :  "  The  rattlesnake  was  the 
species  almost  exclusively  honored  hy  the  red  race.  It 
is  slow  to  attack,  but  venomous  in  the  extreme,  and 
possesses  the  power  of  the  basilisk  to  attract  within  its 
spring  small  birds  and  squirrels. "^  Evidently  the 
worship  of  such  reptiles  must  have  been  inspired,  in  a 
measure  at  least,  by  fear.  Still,  it  appears  certain,  as 
the  author  just  quoted  believes,  that,  as  emplo3^ed  to 
express  the  divine  element  in  atmospheric  and  other 
natural  phenomena,  it  far  more  frequently  t3'pified  what 
was  favorable  and  agreeable  than  tlie  reverse.  Ebers 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  ''  mythological  figures  of 

^  Mr.  Spencer  says  :  "The  rudimentarj^  form  of  all  religion  is  tbe  pro- 
pitiation of  dead  ancestors,  -who  are  supposed  to  be  still  existing  and  to  be 
capable  of  working  good  or  evil  to  their  descendants."  "  Origin  of  Animal 
Worship,  etc.,"  in  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  vii,  p.  586.    N.  S. 

2  Uarda,  vol.  ii,  p.  249.  ^  Myths  of  the  New  World,  p.  108. 


80  Medical  Symbolism. 

snakes  have  quite  as  often  a  benevolent  as  a  malevolent 
signification. "1 

A  word  must  be  said  about  the  phallic  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  serpent-worship.  Mr.  Cox,  an  excellent 
writer  on  mythology,  is  friendly  to  this  theory.  After 
speaking  of  the  phallus  as  a  symbol,  he  says :  "  When 
we  add  that  from  its  physical  characteristics  the  Aslie- 
rah,  which  the  Greeks  called  the  phallus,  suggested  the 
emblem  of  the  serpent,  we  have  the  key  to  the  tree-  and 
serpent-  worship. "^  Beyond  question,  a  phallus-serpent 
comes  frequently  into  view  in  studying  mythology,  but 
it  would  be  very  hard  to  prove  that  every  serpent  met 
with  had  its  prototype  in  the  phallus.  It  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  beneficent,  a  life-giving  power.  The  Agatho- 
dsemon  is  frequently  so  represented. 

Probably  the  possibility  of  charming  serpents  has  had 
something  to  do  with  the  remarkable  uses  to  which  these 
animals  have  been  put.  A  person  who  could  handle 
without  danger  a  venomous  reptile,  and  control  its 
actions  at  pleasure,  might  easily  lead  many  to  believe 
him  to  be  possessed  of  some  miraculous  power.  Aaron 
resorted  to  this  artifice  when  he  appeared  before  Pharaoh 
with  his  cataleptic  serpent,  in  the  form  of  a  rod.^ 

The  reason  just  given  seems  better  than  the  one 
Plutarch  gives  for  the  association  of  the  serpent  with 
certain  great  men,  when  he  says,  in  his  "Life  of  Cleo- 
manes,"  that  it  was  from  a  belief  that  after  death 
evaporation  of  "the  marrow"*  produces  serpents  ;*  that 

*  Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  38. 

^  Comparative  Mythology  and  Folk-lore,  p.  143.    London,  1881. 
'  See  Exodus,  vii,  10-13. 

*  The  spinal  marrow  was  believed  by  some  in  ancient  times  to  be  the 
seat  of  life.    Plato  entertained  that  view.    See  Timaeus,  74,  91. 

*  In  that  hoary  Egyptian  work.  The  Book  of  the  Dead  (oh.  155),  occurs 
this  remarkable  passage  :  "All  creation  is,  when  dead,  turned  into  living 
reptiles." 


u^sculapius  and  the  Seryent.  81 

the  ancients  appropriated  the  serpent,  rather  than  any 
other  animal,  to  heroes. 

I  believe  it  is  vain  to  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  of 
serpent-worship  to  one  and  the  same  source.  This 
appears  plain  when  it  is  remembered  that  some  serpents 
represented  good,  while  others  stood  for  the  opposite, 
evil.  The  Bible  furnishes  a  marked  instance  of  contrasts : 
in  one  place  a  serpent  was  used,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
as  a  s^^mbol  of  God,  or  Christ,  while  elsewhere  one 
represents  cunning,  envy,  lying,  and  even  "  the  devil  and 
Satan,  which  deceiveth  the  whole  world. "^  In  the  nature 
of  things,  one  would  expect  the  same  species  of  reptile 
to  produce  a  yerj  similar  impression  on  primitive  peoples 
everywhere.  This,  probably,  accounts  largely  for  the 
resemblance  to  one  another  of  most  serpent-legends. 
The  different  impressions  produced  hy  different  species 
would,  to  some  extent,  explain  the  unlike  significance  of 
serpent-sj^mbols  among  different  peoples.  The  signifi- 
cation, however,  was  often  of  ver}^  fanciful  origin,  as, 
for  example,  where  a  serpent  in  the  form  of  a  circle 
symbolized  eternity,  or,  rather,  endless  life. 

*  Rev.,  xyi,  9. 
4* 


CHAPTER  X. 

VARIOUS   ATTRIBUTES   OF   iESCULAPIUS. 

In  this  chapter  I  will  speak  briefly  of  various  attri- 
butes, more  or  less  generally  accorded  to  ^sculapius. 
Some  of  them  are  decidedly  significant,  but  none  so 
much  so  as  the  staff  and  serpent  of  which  I  have  fully 
treated. 

In  many,  indeed  most,  of  the  representations  of 
^sculapius,  he  is  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  laurel. 
This  mark  of  merit,  like  rays  of  light  which  were  given 
in  some  instances,  has  been  commonly  held  to  have  been 
accorded  him  because  he  was  the  son  of  Apollo,  to 
whom  the  tree  was  sacred.  According  to  this  view, 
one  has  in  it  a  remnant  of  the  oracular  laurel  at  Delphi. 
Another  way  of  accounting  for  it  is,  to  use  the  words 
of  Tooke,  "because  that  tree  is  powerful  in  curing  many 
diseases,"!  an  exaggerated  claim.  The  ancients  regarded 
it  as  effective  against  evil  spirits. ^ 

A  BUNCH  OF  HERBS  was  at  timcs  represented  in  one 
of  the  hands  of  the  god.  This  was  very  appropriate. 
The  district  of  Greece^  in  which,  according  to  the 
leoend,  he  studied  under  Chiron,  was  famous  for  its 
medicinal  plants. 

A  BOWL  was  occasionally  shown  in  connection  with 
figures  of  ^sculapius.  It  was  indicative  of  the  admin- 
istration by  him  of  medicinal  potions. 

A    SCROLL   was   an    attribute   of    some   ^sculapian 

*  Pantheon,  p.  271.    Am.  edition.    Baltimore,  1830. 
2  For  much  of  interest  about  the  laurel,  see  Plant-lore  Legends  and 
Lyrics,  p.  404,  by  Richard  Folkard,  Jr.    London,  1884, 
» Thessaly. 

(83) 


84 


Medical  Symbolism. 


figures.  It  is  an  admirable  one  for  an  ideal  physician. 
In  modern  times  it  should  certainly  be  regarded  as  an 
indispensable  one.  Medicine  has  been  evolved  from 
recorded  experience,  and  its  progress  is  dependent  on 
the  same. 

An  unpublished  discovery  of  any  kind  is,  in  a 
manner,  none  at  all.  Curiously  enough  the  name  of 
the  Egyptian  god  of  medicine,  Imhotep,  means,  "  I 
bring  the  offeriug,"  the  ideograph  for  hotepy  or  ofiering, 
being  a  papyrus  roll. 

I  will  now  say  a  few  words  about  a  remarkable  attri- 
bute of  some  representations  of  the  god 
of  medicine.  I  refer  to  telesphorus, 
EUEMERiON,  or  ACESius,^  a  Small  figure,  a 
boy,  but  not  a  son,  as  is  sometimes  stated. 
As  will  be  seen  in  the  cut  of  him  given, 
and  which  is  copied  from  one  given  by 
Tooke,^  as  seen  in  a  statue  in  the  Louvre, 
lie  is  wrapped  in  a  mantle  and  is  bare- 
footed. Figures  of  him,  however,  vary 
considerably  in  appearance.  In  him  we 
Fig.  10— Teles-  have,  according  to  some,  a  sort  of  dsemon 
PHORus.  ^^,  familiar   spirit,  such   as   that  which 

Socrates  is  said  to  have  had.  It  is  better,  I  think,  to  re- 
gard him  as  a  genius,^  meant  to  symbolize  the  hidden 
sustaining  vital  force,  the  vis  medicatrix  naturae,  or 
anima  medica,\\\)0\\  which  greatly  depends  the  recovery 
of  the  sick.     It  has  been  suggested  that  the  careful 

»  The  literal  meaning  of  Telesphorus  is  "  bringing  to  an  end ;"  of  Eue- 
merion,  "prosperous,  or  glorious;"  and  of  Acesius,  "health-giving." 

*  Pantheon. 

3  Tooke  states  that  hy  genius  is  generally  meant  "that  spirit  of  nature 

which  produces  all  things,  from  which  generative  power  it  has  its  name, 

.    .    .    The  images  of  the  genii  resembled,  for  the  most  part,  the  form 

of  a  serpent.    Sometimes  they  were  described  like  a  boy,  a  girl,  or  an  old 

man.''    Pantheon,  p.  240. 


Various  Attributes  of  JEsculapius.  85 

wrapping  may  be  intended  to  indicate  the  need  of  such 
protection  during  convalescence. 

The  DOG  was  prominent  in  connection  with  the  Epi- 
daurian  and  other  statues  of  ^sculapius.  The  fidelity 
and  watchfulness  of  this  friendl}'^  animal  render  it  a  very 
tit  attribute  of  the  god.  The  part  played  with  the  goat, 
according  to  the  legend,  has  been  taken  by  some  to 
afford  an  explanation  of  the  connection.  Another  is 
furnished  by  the  name,  which,  as  will  be  pointed  out  in 
the  next  chapter,  apparently  means  man-dog. 

The  Parsis  believed  that  dogs  with  four  eyes  could 
drive  away  the  death-fiend  ;  but  such  not  being  procur- 
able, one  "  with  two  spots  above  the  eyes  "  was  used 
for  the  purpose.  In  their  great  sacred  book,^  the 
animal  is  represented  to  be  the  special  one  of  Ormazd. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  Magi  do  not  hesitate  to  kill 
all  animals,  "  excepting  dogs  and  men."^ 

The  Oriental  Mardux,  in  whom  was  assimilated  the 
more  ancient  Silik-mulu-khi,  a  healing  divinitj^,  was 
attended  by  dogs,  as  was  Nimrod,  the  hunter,  with 
whom  he  may  have  been  identical.^ 

The  COCK,  as  well  as  the  dog,  was  a  prominent  attri- 
bute in  many  representations  of  -^sculapius.  This 
alert  bird,  a  bird  watchful  of  the  returning  light,  was 
very  properly  associated  with  a  sun-god.  It  was  a  com- 
mon object  of  sacrifice  to  the  god,  b}^  patients  who  were 
grateful  for  relief  or  cure.  Socrates  has,  through  Plato, 
made  this  memorable.  Said  the  dying  sage,  as  he  felt 
his  limbs  growing  cold  :  "  When  the  poison  reaches  the 
heart,  that  will  be  the  end."  Feeling  his  body  gradually 
losing  its  vital  heat,  and  realizing  that  relief  from  his 
troubles  was  at  hand,  he  said,  as  he  passed  awaj^,  "  Crito,  I 

1  Zend  Avesta.  2  Herodotus,  i,  140. 

^  See  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  vol.  ii,  p. 
245. 


86  Medical  Symbolism. 

owe  a  cock  to  JEsculapius ;  will  you  remember  to  pay  the 
debt?"   "  The  debt  shall  be  paid," responded  his  friend.^ 

The  practice  of  sacrificing^  a  cock  for  the  restora- 
tion of  health  was  not  exclusively  practiced  by  the 
votaries  of  ^sculapius.  In  his  "  Life  of  Pyrrhus,  King 
of  Epirus,"  Plutarch  says  that  "a  white  cock"  was 
sacrificed  generally  by  each  of  the  patients  he  touched 
"  for  swelling  of  the  spleen."  The  full  quotation  will 
be  given  in  a  succeeding  chapter.  The  bird  is  still 
sacrificed  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  and  other  countries, 
for  the  removal  of  at  least  one  disease, — epilepsy.  Dr. 
Mitchell,  of  Edinburgh,  states  that  the  practice  is  very 
familiar  to  him.  In  the  northern  part  of  his  native 
country,  "on  the  spot,"  says  he,  "  where  the  epileptic 
first  falls,  a  black  cock  is  buried  alive,  along  with  a  lock 
of  the  patient's  hair  and  some  parings  of  his  nails. "^ 

There  is  yet  another  animal  associated  with  the  god 
of  medicine, — the  goat.  It  was  especially  b}^  the 
Cyrenians  that  the  connection  was  much  emphasized. 
Pausanias  remarks  that  "the  Cyrenians  sacrifice  goats, 
although  this  rite  was  not  delivered  bj^  the  Epidaurians."* 
Still,  as  already  pointed  out,  on  Epidaurian  coins, 
JEsculapius  was  represented  sucking  a  goat, — an  illus- 
tration of  the  legend. 

Wh}^  the  goat  was  connected  in  sacrifice  with  the 
god  is  explained  by  Tooke  thus:  "A  goat  is  alwaj's  in 
a  fever,  and,  therefore,  a  goat's  constitution  is  very  con- 
trary to  health."^     Shakespeare,  in  "  King  Lear,"  uses 

1  Phaedo. 

2  Grimm  justly  remarks  that  sacrifice  was  a  common  feature  jf 
heathen  medicine  ;  "great  cures  and  the  averting  of  pestilence,"  says  he, 
"could  only  be  effected  by  sacrifice."  Teutonic  Mythology  (translation), 
p.  11.30. 

3  The  Past  in  the  Present,  p.  164.     New  York,  1881. 
*  Itinerary  of  Greece  (translation),  vol,  ii,  p.  211. 

» Pantheon,  p,  271. 


Various  Attributes  of  JEsculapius.  8t 

the  phrase  "  goatish  disposition "  in  reference  to  a 
"  whoremaster  man."  The  fabled  satyrs  were  in  part 
goats  in  form.  I  am  not  aware  that  there  was  anything 
of  the  Biblical  scape-goat  principle^  about  the  sacrifice, 
a  superstition  similar  to  the  one  which  prevailed  "  all 
over  Egypt,"  as  we  are  told  by  Herodotus, 2  of  prajdng 
that  evils  impending  over  the  people  might  fall  on  the 
head  of  the  sacrificial  victim,  and  then  casting  it  into 
the  Nile,  if  there  was  no  Greek  at  hand  to  whom  it  could 
be  sold. 

The  great  prominence  of  the  goat  in  the  ^sculapian 
rites  in  Cyrene  may  have  been  due,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  to  the  proximity  of  Egypt,  a  country  in  which  the 
animal  played  a  prominent  part.  In  the  goat  of  Mendes,^ 
the  incarnation  of  Khem  or  Min,  was  personified,  says 
Lenormant,  "  in  the  most  brutish  manner  the  repro- 
ductive power."  *  Both  the  goat  and  the  cock  were  often 
associated  with  the  Egyptian  Hermes. 

I  may  add  that  the  cause  of  the  association  of  the 
goat  with  ^sculapius  has  been  referred  to  the  name. 
The  Abbe  Banier  states  the  case  thus  :  "  Es  or  ex,  which 
begins  the  name  of  the  god,  signifies  a  goat  in  the 
language  of  the  Phoenicians,^  and,  with  a  little  varia- 
tion, the  same  thing  in  Greek  ;^  and  this  had  given  rise 
to  the  fable  of  -^sculapius  being  nursed  by  that 
animal."^ 

*  See  Levit.,  xvi  et  seq.  «Ch.  ii,  39. 

3  Ammon,  Knupliis,  or  Agathodaemon  of  later  times. 
■*  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  i,  p.  326. 

^  The  language  of  the  Hebrews  is  essentially  the  same:  es  or  ez 
means  a  goat, 

'  The  Mythology  and  Fables  of  the  Ancients  Explained  from  History, 
vol.  iii,  p.  160.    London,  1740, 


CHAPTER  XL 

GODS   ANALOGOUS   TO   ^SCULAPIUS. 

The  great  eminence  acquired  by  the  -^Esculapian 
ra^^th  among  the  Grecians  might  reasonably  lead  to  the 
belief  that  it  was  one  entirely  special  to  that  imaginative 
people.  Like  many  other  gods,  however,  of  both  high 
and  low  degree,  this  one  was  only  in  part  "  to  the  manor 
born."  There  is  good  ground  for  believing  that  there 
was  what  might  justly  be  called  a  prototype  of  the 
divinity  of  much  repute  in  both  Phoenicia  and  Egypt. 
Dr.  Mayo  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that  "  ^sculapius 
was  actually  known  in  the  Oriental  countries  before  he 
was  in  Greece,  whither  his  worship  was  brought  from 
Phoenicia  by  the  colony  of  Cadmus  and  from  Egypt  by 
that  of  Danaus."^  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  main 
conception  of  the  healing  god  did  really  long  antedate 
not  only  the  Grecian  but  both  the  Phoenician  and 
Egyptian  embodiments  of  it.  Evidence  of  this  will  be 
found  later  in  the  chapter. 

The  EsMUN  "  the  Eighth "  of  the  Phoenicians, 
especially  worshipped  at  Berytus,^  has  been  regarded^ 
as  essentially  the  same  as  the  Grecian  JEsculapius.  He 
was  probably  that  and  something  more.  Little  definite 
is  known  of  this  personage,  of  whom  the  serpent  was  a 
sj^mbol,  save  what  we  are  told  of  him  in  the  fragment 
of  an  historical  work  by  Sanchoniathon,  preserved  by 
Ensebius,  an  early  Christian  writer.     "  To  Sydjiv,  called 

*  New  System  of  Mythology,  vol.  iii,  p.  456.    Philadelphia,  1819. 
'^  Now  called  Beyrout. 

'  Damascius,  in  his  Life  of  Isidorus,  uses  the  phrase  "Esmun,  who  is 
interpreted  Asclepius." 

D'  (89) 


90  Medical  Symbolism. 

the  Just,"  it  is  said,  "one  of  the  Titauides^  bore 
Esmun."2  He  is  represented  to  have  been  the  eighth 
and  chief  of  those*spared  b}^  the  delnge,  and  also  of  the 
Cabiri,  or  Cabeiri,^  "the  seven  sons  of  S^'d^'k,"*  the 
mighty  ones,  named,  it  has  been  said,^  after  mountains 
in  Phrj^gia,  and  divinities  widel}^,  but  in  general  secretly, 
adored,  in  Phoenicia,  Carthage,^  Egypt,'  and  else- 
where. 

The  belief  has  been  expressed  that  Noah  and  his 
family  and  the  Cabiri  were  original!}^  the  same.®  Mr. 
Faber  entertained  this  view,  and  it  is  full}^  set  forth  by 
bim  in  an  interesting  work, — one,  b}^  the  way,  in  which 
is  abl}^  presented  the  so-called  Arkite  s^'^mbolism,^  which 
has  excited  considerable  attention,  but  which  Mr.  Tylor, 
as  well  as  many  others,  declares  to  be  "  arrant  non- 
sense. "^^  In  reference  to  JEsculapius  he  says  :  "  This 
deity  connects  the  first  and  second  tables  of  the  Phoe- 
nician genealogies,  his  father,  Sydyk,  occupying  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  one,  while  his  mother,  Titanis, 

*  Daughters  of  Titan,  by  Astarte. 

^  See  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  14.    Edition  by  Hodges. 
'  From  the  Semitic  word  Kabir,  great. 

*  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  19.       *  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia. 

^  Tlie  temple  of  the  god  at  Carthage  was  of  great  splendor  and 
renown.  See  Dr.  Davis's  Carthage  and  its  Remains,  ch.  xvii.  London, 
1861.  Says  the  Doctor  :  "The  Temple  of  -^sculapius  was  as  prominent  a 
feature  of  Carthage  as  the  Capitoline  hill  was  at  Rome,  or  as  St.  Paul's  is 
in  London"  (p.  369h  It  was  on  a  rocky  eminence  (the  Byrsa).  Ruins  of 
the  staircase  still  remain. 

■■  The  city  of  Ilermopolis  received  also  the  name  of  Esmun.  In  the 
Book  of  the  Dead  (ch.  cxiv)  the  deceased  is  represented  as  saying,  while 
adoring  Thoth,  Amset,  and  Tum  :  "I  have  come  as  a  prevailer,  through 
knowing  the  spirits  of  Esmun."    Thoth  presided  over  this  nome. 

*  Bunsen  maintains  that  the  Cabiri  were  the  seven  archangels  of  the 
Jews,  originally  "the  seven  fundamental  powers  of  the  visible  creation." 
Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History,  vol.  iv,  p.  256. 

'  See  Prof.  Lesley's  interesting  work,  ]Man's  Origin  and  Destinj',  first 
edition.  Philadelphia,  1868.  For  some  reason  the  chapter  on  Arkite  sym- 
bolism is  not  given  in  the  second  edition. 

'°  Primitive  Culture,  vol.  i,  p.  218.    London,  1871. 


Gods  Analogous  to  jEsculapius.  91 

is  enumerated  among  the  daughters  of  Cronus,  in  the 
other.  I  am  much  inclined  to  think  that  the  imaginary 
god  of  health  is  in  reality  the  very  same  person  as  his 
reputed  father,  Sj^dyk,  both  of  them  being  equally  the 
patriarch,  Noah,  worshipped  in  connection  with  the  sun. 
Macrobius,  accordingly,  informs  us  that  JEsculapius 
was  one  of  the  many  names  of  the  solar  deity,  and  that 
he  was  usually  adored  along  with  Salus,  or  the  Moon.^ 
Salus,  however,  was  no  less  a  personification  of  the  ark 
than  of  the  moon,  those  two  objects  of  idolatrous  venera- 
tion being  allied  to  each  other  in  consequence  of  the 
union  of  the  Arkite  and  Sabian  superstitions.  Thus, 
while  Noah  was  revered  as  the  god  of  health  and  as  one 
of  the  eight  Cabiri,  the  vessel  in  which  he  was  preserved 
was  honored  with  the  title  of  Salus,  or  Safety."^ 

Lenormant  regards  the  Cabiri  as  the  seven  planets 
of  the  ancients  ;  that  is,  the  Sun,  Moon,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Mars,  Yenus,  and  Mercury.  "  Esmun,"  says  he,  "  invisi- 
ble to  mortal  eyes,  was  supposed  to  be  the  connecting 
link  of  the  seven  others  and  the  one  approaching  nearest 
to  the  primordial  Baal.^  He  presided  over  the  whole 
sideral  S3^stem,  and  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the 
laws  and  harmonies  of  the  universe,  and  in  this  respect 
was  the  same  as  Taaut."* 

Although  secret,  the  worship  of  the  Cabiri  was  par- 
ticipated in  by  persons  of  either  sex  and  of  all  ages. 
In  Lemnos  and  other  places  the  fires  were  put  out, 
sacrifices  to  the  dead  were  made,  and  fire  was  brouo-ht 
from  Delos  in  a  sacred  vessel  and  given  to  the  people, 
who,  with  it,  began  a  new  and  regenerated  existence. 

»  Saturnal,  i,  20. 

2  The  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,  vol.  i,  p.  98.    Oxford,  1803. 

3  In  Phoenicia  he  was  the  seven  viewed  collectively  as  "  the  soul  of 
the  world."    Bunsen's  Egypt's  Place,  etc.,  vol.  iv,  p.  229. 

*  Ancient  History  of  the  East,  vol.  ii,  p.  221. 


92  Medical  Symbolism. 

Phallic  rites  formed  an  inseparable  part  of  the  worship, 
which  was  indulged  in  at  stated  periods. 

As    showing   that    ^scnlapius   was    of    Phoenician 
origin,  Mr.  Faber  lays  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  in  the 
edition  of  Yirgll   by    Servius    the   line   telling  of  the 
destruction  of  the  god  makes  him  a  Phoenician : — 
^^Fuhnine  Poenigenam  Stygias  detrusit  ad  undas.'^'^ 

The  usual  and,  doubtless,  the  right  reading  makes 
Poen ige nam,  Ph oebige n am. 

The  opinion  that  ^sculapius  was  essentially  the 
same  as  Anubis  among  the  early  Egyptians  has  been 
advanced.  Both  were  viewed  as  simply  divine  personi- 
fications of  Sirlus,  or  Sothis,  the  dog-star.^  This  view 
is  well  presented  by  M.  Pluclie. 

A  study  of  the  name^  JEsculapius  may  or  may  not 
afford  evidence  in  favor  of  the  idea  that  there  was 
originally  a  connection  between  the  god  and  the  dog- 
star.  Although  decidedly  a  Grecian  god,  Asklepios 
does  not  appear  to  be  a  Greek  word.  Keightly  goes  so 
far  as  to  sa}^  "Of  his  name  no  satisfactory  derivation 
has  as  yet  been  offered."*  He  ventures,  however,  to 
suggest  that  it  may  be  from  the  root  GxaXka,  the  original 
meaning  of  which  may  have  been  to  cut,  whence  the 
Latin  scaljjo  and  our  own  word  scalpel.  Mr.  Keightly 
forgot  that  the  name  was  not  necessarily  Greek ;  for 
that,  like  nearly  all  others,  was  largely  a  derivative  lan- 
guage. In  the  Greek  as  well  as  the  Latin  form,  it  may 
be  Hebrew,  or,  what  was  essentially  the  same,  Phoeni- 
cian.    Taking  it  to  be  compounded  of  esh,  aish,  isch, 

'  ^neid,  vii,  line  773. 

'  Tiele  takes  such  a  view  of  Anubis.  See  Histoi-y  of  the  Egyptian 
Religion,  p.  65. 

»  Nearly  all  ancient  Hebrew,  as  well  as  Assyiian,  proper  names  are 
expressive  of  something  about  tbe  birth  or  life  of  the  bearers. 

*  Mythology  of  Ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  Third  edition.  London, 
1854. 


Gods  Analogous  to  ^sculapius,  93 

or  ish^'^  a  man,  and  caleb^^  caleph^  or  culap,  a  clog,  the 
literal  meaning  of  it  is  vir-caniSj  or  man-clog.  But,  as 
some  remarks  already  made  indicate,  it  may  be  inter- 
preted to  mean  goat-dog.^ 

Anubts,  Anup,  or  Anupu,  who  in  very  early  times 
was  possibly  the  same  as  Thoth,  was  regarded  as  sym- 
bolic of  that  brightest  of  the  fixed  stars,  Sirius,  "  the 
burning,"  whose  first  appearance  in  the  morning  was 
the  signal  of  the  advent  of  the  warm  season,  and  the 
Etesian  or  periodic  wind  from  the  north,  as  well  as  the 
beginning  of  the  year,*  The  rising  of  this  notable  star 
heliacally — that  is,  with  the  sun^ — told  the  Egyptians 
to  prepare  at  once  for  the  overflow  of  the  waters  of  the 
Nile.  By  many  it  was  believed  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
flood.  The  watch-clog  was  evidently  a  A^ery  appropriate 
symbol  for  this  star  of  warning.  Then,  from  the  fact  that 
Sirius  gave  warning  of  danger,  and  thus  saved  the  lives 
of  the  people,  to  the  symbols  of  it  the  serpent,  the  life- 
S3^mbol,  was  often  and  very  properly  attached.  "  On 
this  account  it  was,"  says  Pluche,  "that  Anubis  and 
^sculapius  passed  for  the  inventors  of  physic  and  tlie 
preservers  of  life."^ 

^  The  Hebrew  word,  like  the  Latin  vir,  means  man  in  a  distinguished 
sense  (virile) ,  and  may  come  from  the  EgjTptian  ash,  tree  of  life. 

^  Caleb,  or  city  of  the  dog,  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  has  been  ac- 
corded the  credit  of  the  name  of  the  god.  See  the  Abbe  Banier's  My- 
thology and  Fables  of  the  Ancients,  etc.  (translation),  vol.  iii,  p.  160. 

^  Possibly  the  first  syllable  of  -^sculapius,  like  the  Hebrew  ishi,  salu- 
tary, and  asa,  to  heal,  may  have  been  from  the  Egyptian  usha,  health- 
bringing, — doctor.  See  Gerald  Massey's  Book  of  Beginnings,  vol.  ii,  p.  301. 
London,  1881.  ■•  Hence  the  name,  Canicular  Year. 

'  It  does  not  now  rise  heliacally  until  the  middle  of  August.  But, 
4000  years  ago  it  rose  so  about  the  20th  of  June,  and  just  preceded  the 
annual  rising  of  the  Nile. 

^  History  of  the  Heavens,  vol.  i,  p.  185.  Anubis  had  various  functions 
which  cannot  be  spoken  of  here.  He  bore  the  souls  of  men  to  the  nether 
world,  like  Hermes,  of  the  Greeks,  and  assisted  Horus  in  weighing  them. 
A  passage  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead  reads,  "He  is  behind  the  bier  which 
holds  the  bowels  of  Osiris."  Evidently  he  might  be  regarded  as  the  god 
of  undertakers. 


94  31edical  Symbolism. 

Others  besides  the  Egyptians  regarded  Sirius  with 

favor ;^     as,  for   example,  the  Parsis,  to  whom    it  was 

"  Tystria,  the  bright  and  glorious  star."^     In   Greece, 

however,  it  was  not  regarded  as  propitious.     To  it  were 

attributed  certain  diseases.     Thus,  Homer,  who  calls  it 

Orion's  dog,  sa3^s  : — 

"  His  burning  breath 

Taints  the  red  air  with  fevers,  plagues,  and  death. "3 

Remembering  the  medical  history  of  Sirius,  it  is 
worth  while  recalling  that  the  "dog-days,"  those  ex- 
tending from  about  the  22d  of  July  to  the  23d  of 
August,  are  often  spoken  of  as  the  physician's  holiday. 
One  very  often  hears  that  Thoth  was  to  the  Egyptians 
the  god  of  medicine,  just  as  iEsculapius 
was  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Even 
the  late  Dr.  Aitken  Meigs,  a  scholarly 
physician,  accepted  this  idea.  In  an  ad- 
dress, to  be  referred  to  later,  he  says : 
"  JEsculapius  is, doubtless,  the  Egyptian 
Thoth,  or  Hermes  Trismegistus,  whose 
symbols,  the  staff  and  twining  serpent, 
FiQ.ii.-ANUBis.  g^ij.j^o^^,^ted  with  the  mystic  hawk  of 
Horus-Ra  and  the  solar  urseus,^  appear  in  the  ancient 
temple  Pselcis,  near  Dakkeh,  in  Nubia."  The  Doctor  is 
about  as  wide  of  the  mark  as  Forbes  Win  slow,  when  he 
says  that  the  Grecian  "  Apollo  and  Minerva  answered 

*  Typhon,  or  Set,  was  regarded,  indeed,  by  the  Egyptians  as  the  god 
Sothis,  or  Sirius.  See  Bunsen's  Egypt's  IMace,  etc.,  vol.  i,  p.  429.  But 
Typhon  was  not,  in  early  times,  regarded  as  simply  the  personification  of 
evil.     See  Kenrick's  Ancient  Egypt,  vol.  i,  p.  350. 

'  Zend  Avesta.  Edition  by  James  Darmesteter,  in  two  parts,  or  vol- 
umes, in  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  edited  by  Max  Miiller,  vol.  i,  p.  83. 
Oxford,  England,  1883. 

^  Iliad,  xxii. 

*  Such  a  staff  is,  indeed,  shown  by  Wilkinson,  and  is  given  by  Cooper 
in  his  essay,  already  qnoted.  From  the  presence  of  the  hawk  and  uraius, 
one  might  more  properly  accord  it  to  Horus. 


Gods  Analogous  to  j^sculapius.  95 

to  the  Isis  and  Osiris  of  tiie  Eg3?^ptiaiis ;  and  Orplieus, 
the  priest,  poet,  and  physician,  usurped  the  place  of 
Thoth."! 

Hermes,  Thoth,  or  Thot,  the  Tet  or  Taautes  of 
the  Phcenicians,  was  not  the  god  of  medicine  among  the 
Egyptians,  any  more  than  he  was  the  god  of  any  otlier 
special  branch  of  knowledge.  He  was  the  patron  god 
of  all  kinds  of  learning. 

Says  Ebers  :  "  The  discovery  of  nearly  ever}^  science 
is  attributed  to  the  ibis-headed  god,  Thoth,  the  writer 
or  clerk  of  heaven,  whom  the  Greeks  compared  to  their 
god,  Hermes."^ 

It  is  no  doubt  true,  however,  that  Hermes  was  cred- 
ited with  taking  considerable  interest  in  medical  matters. 
He  was  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  six  books  on  the 
healing  art,  in  which  anatomy,  pathology,  and  thera- 
peutics were  treated  of,  together  with  diseases  of  the 
eye, — apart  of  the  body  which  has  always  suffered  much 
in  Egypt.  Ebers  remarks  that  "  the  book  on  the  use  of 
medicine  has  been  preserved  to  the  present  day  in  the 
*  Papyrus-Ebers.'  "^ 

Having  referred  to  the  "  Pap3a*us-Ebers,"  it  may  be 
well  to  say  a  few  words  about  it.  It  was  discovered  a 
few  years  ago  by  the  learned  and  A^ersatile  Eg3n^tologist, 
Herr  Ebers,  and  is  the  best  preserved  of  all  the  ancient 
Eg5^ptian  manuscripts  extant.  It  was  written  at  Sals 
during  the  eighteenth  dynasty ;  that  is,  in  the  sixteenth 
century  before  our  era.  It  consists  of  110  pages.  In 
it  we  have  the  hermetic  medical  work  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  with  the  contents  of  which  the  Alexandrian 
Greeks  were  familiar.  The  god  Thoth  is  called  in  it 
"the  Guide"  of  physicians,  and  the  composition  of  it  is 

*  Physic  and  Physicians,  vol.  i,  p.  6.    London,  1839. 

"  Princess,  vol.  i,  p.  210.  '  Ibid. 


96  Medical  Symbolism. 

attributed  to  him.  Tiiis  venerable  document  treats  of 
many  internal  and  external  diseases  of  most  parts  of  the 
bod3\  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  visual  organs. 
Drugs  belonging  to  all  the  kingdoms  of  nature  are  used, 
and  with  those  prescribed  are  numbers  according  to 
which  they  are  w^eighed  with  weights  and  measured  with 
hollow  vessels.  Accompanying  the  prescriptions  are 
noted  the  pious  axioms  to  be  repeated  hy  the  physician 
while  compounding  and  giving  them  to  the  patient.  The 
German  government  has  published  the  work  in  facsimile^ 
a  copy  of  which  I  have  examined.  There  is  a  copy  of 
it,  I  think,  in  the  Astor  Library,  New  York. 

Medicine  certainly  consisted  of  more  than  charms 
and  the  like,  at  a  very  earl}-  period,  in  Egypt.  Indeed, 
in  the  remains  of  Manetho's  history  of  the  countrj',  it  is 
said  of  the  successor  of  Menes,  the  first  king  of  the 
first  dynasty,  which  dates  back  to  about  4000  j^ears 
before  our  era:  "Athothis,  his  son,  reigned  5t  j^ears  ; 
he  built  the  palaces  at  Memphis,  and  left  the  anatomical 
books,  for  he  was  a  physician. "^  The  custom  of  embalm- 
ing the  dead  necessarily  led  to  at  least  a  rough  knowl- 
edge of  the  anatomy  of  the  body. 

Sesostris,  or  Sesortosis,  the  second  king  of  the  third 
dynasty,  sometimes  gets  credit  for  being  "the  actual 
founder  of  medicine."^  Manetho  says  of  him  :  "  He  is 
called  Asclepius  by  the  Egyptians,  for  his  medical 
knowledge."^ 

According  to  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  medical  prac- 
tice was  carried  on  in  a  highly  rational  way  at  an  early 
period  in  Egypt.  Mr.  Sayce  ventures  to  say  that  in  the 
period  of  the  eighteenth  d^^iast}^  medicine  was  in  almost 

1  See  Cory's  Ancient  Fraf!;inents,  p.  112.  Edition  by  Hodges. 
'  Bunsen,  in  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History,  vol.  ii,  p.  89. 
»  See  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  113. 


Gods  Analogous  to  jEsculapius.  97 

as  advanced  a  state  as  in  the  age  of  Galen  ;  the  various 
diseases  known  were  careful!}^  distinguished  from  one 
another,  and  their  symptoms  were  minutelj^  described, 
as  well  as  their  treatment.  The  prescrii)tions  recom- 
mended in  each  case  are  made  out  in  precisel3^  the  same 
way  as  the  prescriptions  of  a  modern  doctor. "^  Mr. 
Sa3^ce  bases  these  statements  on  the  "  Papj^rus-Ebers." 
However,  we  are  informed  by  Herodotus  that  specialists 
were  common  when  he  visited  the  country,  which  was 
about  450  3^ears  before  our  era;  but  this  must  not  be 
accepted  as  proof  that  medicine  was  necessarily  in  a 
very  advanced  state.  Here  is  what  the  Grecian  historian 
says  :  "Medicine  is  practiced  among  them  on  a  plan  of 
separation ;  each  ph^-sician  treats  a  single  disorder,  and 
no  more.  Thus,  the  countrN'  swarms  with  medical  prac- 
titioners, some  undertaking  to  cure  diseases  of  the 
eye;  others,  of  the  head;  others,  again,  of  the  teeth; 
others,  of  the  intestines;  and  some,  those  which  are 
not  local. "2  As  to  their  philosoph}^  of  morbid  condi- 
tions, he  says:  '•  The}^  have  a  persuasion  that  every  dis- 
ease to  wliich  men  are  liable  is  occasioned  b}^  substances 
whereon  they  feed."  This  doctrine  led  them  "to  purge 
the  body  by  means  of  emetics  and  clysters  "  for  "  three 
successive  days  in  eacli  month. "^ 

In  respect  to  medical  specialism  in  Egypt,  I  may 
further  say  that,  according  to  Ebers,*  as  early  as  1500 
before  our  era,  any  one  requiring  a  pliysician  sent  for  him, 
not  to  his  house,  but  to  the  temple.  There  a  statement  was 
obtained  from  the  messenger  concerning  the  complaint 
from  which  the  sick  person  was  suffering;  and  then  it 
was  left  to   the  principal  of  the   medical  staff  of  the 

'■  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  76. 

'  Herodotus,  ii,  84.    Translation  by  Kawlinson,  '  Ibid.,  ii,  77. 

*  Princess,  vol.  i,  p.  17. 

5    £ 


98  Medical  Symbolism. 

sanctuary  to  select  that  master  of  the  healing  art  whose 
special  knowledge  and  experience  qualified  him  to  be 
best  suited  for  the  treatment  of  the  case.  No  honorarium 
was  expected  from  the  patient.  The  fee  was  paid  b}^  the 
State. 

According  to  Canon  Rawlinson,  it  is  an  open  ques- 
tion whether,  as  is  often  said,  the  physicians  of  ancient 
Egypt  formed  a  special  division  of  the  sacerdotal  order; 
"  though,  no  doubt,  some  of  the  priests  were  required  to 
study  medicine. "1  It  is  interesting  to  connect  with  this 
the  foUowino;  statement  from  an  authoritative  work: 
"  There  is  no  sign  in  the  Homeric  poems  of  the  subordi- 
nation of  medicine  to  religion,  which  is  seen  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  India. "^ 

It  has  been  asserted  that  "medicine  in  Egypt  was  a 
mere  art,  or  profession."^  That  this  assertion  is  ridicu- 
lousl}'  untrue  any  one  knows  who  is  competent  to  form 
an  opinion  on  medical  subjects,  and  who  has  read  the 
Pentateuch.  Moses,  whose  learning  was  Egyptian,  had  a 
wonderful  knowledge  of  h^^giene, — the  most  important 
])art  of  medicine.  The  manner  of  dealing  with  contagious 
diseases  described  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  chap- 
ters of  Leviticus  is  far  in  advance  of  our  practice  to-day. 
So  intent  were  the  Eg3'ptians  on  knowing  the  nature  of 
diseases  that  post-mortem  examinations  were,  it  is  said 
b}^  Plin}^,  resorted  to  for  the  purpose.  Unlike  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Hebrews,  theirs  did  not  teach  them  to  dread 
touching  the  dead.  But  one  has  the  authority  of  Celsus 
for  saying  that  the  latter  physicians,  those  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  were  not  satisfied  with  the  dissection  of 
the  dead  ;  they  went  so  far  as  to  make  ante-mortem  ex- 

»  History  of  Ancient  Ejrypt,  vol.  ii,  p.  528.    London,  1881. 
'  EncyclopaRflia  Britannica,  ninth  ed. 
'  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 


Gods  Analogous  to  j^sculapius.  99 

aminations  of  criminals.  In  truth,  Mr.  Sayce  properly 
observes  that  it  was  "  in  medicine  that  Egypt  attained 
any  real  scientific  eminence."^ 

Jeremiah,  speaking  of  "the  daughter  of  Egj'pt," 
says  :  "  In  vain  shalt  thou  use  many  medicines  ;  for  thou 
shalt  not  be  cured. "^  This  remark  indicates  that  the 
skillful  use  of  medicines  by  the  Eg3^ptians  was  widely 
noised  abroad  over  five  centuries  before  our  era.  Both 
Cyrus  and  Darius  sent  to  Egypt  for  ph3^sicians.^  Hip- 
pocrates, however,  who  lived  nearly  two  centuries  later 
than  the  prophet,  gives  no  prominence  to  Egj'ptian 
medicine.  But  much  earlier,  indeed,  than  this  time,  it 
is  evident  from  the  works  of  Homer  that  it  was  in  repute 
among  the  Greeks.  Thus,  to  remove  the  grief  and  rage 
caused  by  the  death  of  brave  Antilochus,  we  are  told 
that  the  famous  Helen  of  Sparta,  who  takes  on  the 
occasion  the  role  of  une  femme  medecin, — 

"Mix'd  a  mirth-mspiringbowl, 
Temper'd  with  drugs  of  sovereign  power  t'  assuage 
The  boiling  bosom  of  tumultuous  rage. 
*********** 
These  drugs  so  friendly  to  the  joys  of  life 
Bright  Helen  learn'd  from  Thone's  imperial  wife, 4 
Who  sway'd  the  sceptre,  where  prolific  Nile 
With  various  simples  clothes  the  fatten'd  soil.''^ 

Again,  it  is  said  of  the  Pharian  or  Egyptian  race: — 

' '  From  Paeon  sprung,  their  patron  god  imparts 
To  all  the  Pharian  race  his  healing  arts."^ 

Such  statements  as  those  just  made  would  seem  to 
render  it  more  than  probable  that  not  a  little  of  Grecian 

*  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  76. 

2  Jer.,  xlvi,  11.  =  Herodotus,  iii,  1,  129. 

*  Polydamna.  Helen's  enforced  sojourn  in  Egypt  is  fully  described 
by  Herodotus  (ii,  113-116).  Thone,  Thon,  or  Thonls,  the  historian  speaks 
of  as  the  "warden  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile."  The  town  of 
Heracleura  bore  the  name. 

'  Odyssey,  iv.  "  Ibid. 


100  Medical  Symbolism. 

medicine  was  of  Egyptian  origin.  Pliny,  indeed,  says 
that  it  was  claimed  that  the  study  of  medicine  was 
begun  in  Egypt. ^  Blakie,  however,  ventures  to  affirm 
that  "  the  knowledge  of  medicine  came  to  the  Greeks 
originally  from  Thessaly,  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of 
Hellenic  civilization,  as  is  evident  from  the  pedigree  of 
Coronis."^  At  any  rate,  it  is  certain  that,  for  some  time 
before  and  after  the  beginning  of  the  Ciiristian  era, 
Alexandria  was  a  great  medical  centre.  There  it  was 
that  Herophilus  and  Erasistratus  lived  and  imperishably 
distinguished  themselves  two  centuries  or  so  B.C. 

But  I  must  return  to  Hermes,  from  whom  I  have 
been  wandering,  perhaps,  too  far  and  too  long.  Al- 
though I  am  not  disposed  to  give  the  medical  position 
to  him  that  some  have  questionabl}'  done,  I  deem  it  Mise 
to  say  a  few  words  especially  about  him.  Lenormant 
believes  that  he  was  originally  the  angel  of  Baal, 
Malak-Baal,  who,  like  him,  assimilated  with  the  Agatho- 
daemon.3  It  is  generally  believed  that  he  came  to 
Egypt  from  Phoenicia.*  He  was  usually  represented* 
with  the  head  of,  not  a  hawk,  but  an  ibis,  a  heart-shaped 
bird  with  the  plumage  white,  except  the  pinions  and 
tail,  which  are  black,  and  with  long  legs  and  beak,  the 
latter  crooked.  This  bird  was  the  symbol  of  him 
made  use  of  in  writing.  Both  it^  and  a  species'  black 
in  color  are  well  described  by  Herodotus.  Mummified 
specimens  of  it  are  to  be  seen  in  an  excellent  state  of 

*  Natural  History,  vii.  '  Homer  and  the  Iliad,  vol.  i. 

*  Beginnings  of  History,  p.  536. 

*  Bunsen  holds  that  Esmun  and  he  were  originally  the  same  ;  "as  the 
snake  god  he  must  actually  be  Hermes,  in  Phoenician,  Tet,  Taautes." 
Egypt's  Place,  etc.,  vol.  iv,  p.  256. 

*  In  the  cut  he  appears  counting  the  years  on  a  palm-branch — the 
ideograph  for  year.     (Fig.  12,  p.  101.) 

*  Ibis  religiosa,  Hab  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 
■■  Ibis  falcinellus,  the  glossy  ibis. 


Gods  Analogous  to  ^sculapius. 


101 


preservation  in  museums,  as,  for  instance,  in  that  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 

I  may  observe  in  this  connection  that  an  Ibis  Society 
would  be  the  same  as  a  Hermes  Societ3\  Neither  title 
is  \ery  suitable  for  a  medical  one.  I  have  heard  of  an 
Ibex  Society ;  but,  of  course,  the  ibis  and  the  ibex  are 
entirely  different  creatures. 

HoRUS  himself,  whose  "  face  is  in  the  shape  of  the 
divine  hawk,"  ^  and  who,  in  some  respects,  resembles 
Apollo,  was  believed  to  possess  medi- 
cal power.2  Murray  even  says, "  Horus 
was  reputed  to  have  been  deeply  versed 
in  the  practice  of  medicine,  and,  ac- 
cordingh^,  was  compared  with  ^scu- 
laj^ius."^ 

Chonsu,  or  Chonsu-nefer-hotep,* 
the  son  of  Amun  and  Mut,  the  third 
of  the  great  Theban  triad,  was  re- 
garded as  a  healing  divinity.  Says 
Tiele :  "  He  was  resorted  to  for  the 
cure  of  all  diseases,  or  for  the  exor- 
cism of  all  the  evil  spirits  who  inflict 
them."^  He  resembled  Thoth  some- 
what. 

From  the  third  century  before  our  era  forward 
Serapis  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  healing  power.® 
He  was  in  part  a  Grecian  conception,  being  first  promi- 


FiG.  12,— Thoth. 


•  Book  of  the  Dead,  ch.  Ixxviii.  Translation  by  Birch,  in  vol.  v  of 
Bunsen's  Egypt's  Place,  etc.  The  hawk  is  the  usual  symbol  of  Horus,  just 
as  the  ibis  is  of  Thoth. 

^  Tiele  pronounces  Horus  to  be  "the  God  of  Light,  the  Token  of 
Life."     History  of  th'e  Egyptian  Religion,  p.  5i. 
=  Manual  of  Mythology,  p.  346.     London,  1873. 

*  Often  spoken  of  as  the  Hercules  of  the  Egyptians. 
'  History  of  the  Egyptian  Religion,  p.  154. 

^  See  Diodorus  Siculus,  i,  25  ;  and  Tacitus,  xiv,  81. 


102  Medical  Symbolism. 

nent  in  Pontus,  and  his  worship  became  popular  in 
many  sections  of  Greece  and  Rome ;  but  Alexandria 
was  his  chief  seat,  and  his  serapeum  there  was  of  great 
magnificence  and  renown. ^  He  was  represented  in 
various  wa^^s,  often  as  a  man  encirled  by  a  serpent. 

The  special  personage  corresponding  to  ^sculapius, 
among  the  Egyptians,  would  seem  to  have  been  Imhotep, 
EiMOPTH,  Imothph,  Eimothph,  or  Emeph,  a  god  whose 
shrine  was  first  discovered  by  Salt,^  the  Egyptologist, 
at  Philae.  A  Greek  inscription  on  the  shrine  reads  : 
"-^sculapius,  who  is  Imuthes,  son  of  Vulcan."  In 
accordance  with  the  inscription.  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson 
sa3^s :  "  Imhotep,  the  Imuthes  of  the  Greeks,  corre- 
sponded with  their  ^sculapius."^  Ebers,  probably  the 
best  of  authorities  on  the  subject,  says  of  Imhotep : 
"  He  was  the  son  of  Ptah,  and  named  Asklepios  by  the 
Greeks.  Memphis*  was  the  chief  city  of  his  worship. 
He  is  usuall^^  represented  with  a  cap  on  his  head  and  a 
book  on  his  knee.  There  are  fine  statues  of  him  at 
Berlin,  the  Louvre,  and  other  museums."^  It  is  said 
by  Tiele  that  "  he  is  a  personification  of  the  sacrificial 
fire,"  that  "  the  texts  designate  him  as  the  first  of  the 
Cher-hib,  a  class  of  priests  who  were  at  the  same  time 
choristers  and  ph3'sicians,  for  the  sacred  hj^mns  were 
believed  to  have  a  magical  power  as  remedies,  and  that 
his  worship,  although  of  ancient  date,  "does  not  seem 
ever  to  have  taken  a  prominent  place. "^ 

•  Says  Gibbon  :  "  Alexandria,  which  claimed  his  peculiar  protection, 
glorified  in  the  name  of  the  City  of  Serapis."  The  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  xxviii. 

*>  See  his  Essay,  p,  50.       *  Egypt  of  the  Past,  p.  15.    London,  1881. 

*  The  capital  of  Lower  Egypt.  *  Uarda,  vol.  i,  p.  203. 

«  History  of  the  Egyptian  Religion,  p.  94.  London,  1882.  Tiele  re- 
marks that  Imhotep  was  not  only  called  Asklepios  by  the  Greeks,  "but 
likewise  the  Eighth,  thus  showing  that  they  regarded  him  as  one  of  the 
Kabirs"  (p.  95).  I  may  add  that  the  worship  of  the  Kabirs,  in  the  character 


Gods  Analogous  to  JEsculapius.  103 

Of  Imliotep  I  may  further  sa}^,  in  the  way  of  biog- 
raphy, that  he  was  the  son  of  Ptah  and  Sekhet,  and  was 
possibly  a  king  of  the  sixth  dynasty.  In  the  Egyptian 
system  of  mythology,  Ptah,  "  he  who  forms,"  the  god 
of  fire,  was  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  gods  and  the 
great  artificer  of  the  world.  He  bore  a  resemblance  to 
Hephaestus,^  a  god,  indeed,  who  had  the  gift  of  healing. 

After  all,  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  there  is  but  little 
evidence  to  establish  the  claim  of  Imhotep  to  the  title 
of  god  of  medicine.  As  Kenrick  says,  "  He  has  no  at- 
tribute which  specially  refers  to  the  art  of  healing,  and 
it  may  be  an  arbitrary  interpretation  of  the  Grreeks 
which  gave  him  the  name  of  ^sculapius,  as  some  ap- 
plied the  same  to  Serapis."^  Whether  he  was  a  medical 
worthy  or  not,  it  appears  from  quotations  from  his 
teachings  given  in  a  song,  recentlj^  translated  from  a 
papyrus  in  the  British  Museum,  that  he  was  of  decidedly 
epicurean  views.  "  Fulfill,"  says  he,  "  thy  desire  whilst 
thou  livest ;"  and  again  :  "  Feast  in  tranquility,  seeing 
that  there  is  no  one  who  carries  away  his  good  things 
with  him."^ 

However,  as  a  matter  of  interest,  I  will  give  the 
name  of  the  god  in  the  Egyptian  characters.*  The 
double  reed  stands  for  a  long  2,  or  ei,  the  owl  for  w,and 
the  other  three  figures — the  table,  semicircle,  and 
square — for  h  t  p.  As  will  be  observed,  the  o  and  e  of 
the  ideographic  combination,  hotep,^  are  not  given.    The 

of  cosmic  deities,  was  early  established  in  the  region  where  Memphis 
stood.  Bunsen,  indeed,  identifies  Ptah  and  his  seven  sons  with  the 
Kabirs.    See  Egypt's  Place,  etc.,  vol.  iv,  p.  217. 

'  Vulcan  of  the  Romans,  ^  Ancient  Egypt,  vol.  i,  p.  333. 

*  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  vol.  iii,  p.  386. 

*  See  Fig.  13,  p.  104.  The  characters  of  this  name  are  all  phonetic ; 
but  very  many  are  pictorial  or  symbolic.  Examples  of  symbolic  characters 
will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  amulets. 

'  An  offering  ;  food,  peace,  welcome. 


104  Medical  Symbolism. 

reason  of  this  is,  that  in  writing,  the  Egj-ptians,  like  the 
Hebrews  and  others,  commonly  omitted  the  vowels,  ex- 
cept at  tlie  beginning  and  end  of  words.  The  meaning 
of  the  name  is  rendered  by  Bun  sen,  "  I  come  with  the 
offering. "1 

An  early  Aryan  divinity  has  been  stated  to  be  an 
analogue  or  even  the  prototype  of  JEsculapins.  Mr. 
Faber  refers  to  Captain  Wilford  as  holding  that  the 
classical  health  and  life  restorer  "  is  the  Hindoo  Aswi- 
CULAPA,  or  the  chief  of  the  race  of  the  horse,  and  he 
further  intimates  that  Aswiculapa  was  very  nearly-  re- 
lated to  the  two  hero-gods  wiio  are  evidently  the  same 
as  Castor  and  Pollux.  These  were  believed  to  be  the 
children  of  the  sun  and  the  goddess  Devi,  the  sun  at  the 
time  of  their  intercourse  having  assumed  the  form  of 
a  horse  and  Devi  tliat  of  a  mare."^ 
He  hardly  presents  the  real  opinion 
Fig.  13.-IMHOTEP.  ^^^Pi'essed  by  the  Captain,  but,  at 
any  rate,  what  he  has  to  say  is  not 
extremely  important.^ 

The  Aswi,  Asvi,  or  Asvins  were  two,  and  were  pos- 
sibl}'  tlie  prototj'pes  of  the  Dioscuri,*  Castor  and  Pollux. 
Thej^  were  connected  with  the  sun  as  horses.  Taking 
them  to  be  forms  of  the  Dioscuri,  they  might  be  re- 
lated to  the  two  sons  of  ^sculapins,  Machaon  and  Poda- 
lirius,  for  these  have  been  regarded  as  such, — "  nothing 
more  than  a  specific  form  of  the  Dioscuri,"  to  use  the 
words  of  De  Gubernatis.^  The  conception  of  Chiron 
may  have  been  in  part  derived  from  the  Asvins. 

*  Egypt's  Place  in  Universal  History,  vol.  i,  p.  400. 

*  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri,  vol.  i,  p.  99. 

'  See  his  work  on  Eg:ypt,  etc.,  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iii,  p.  392. 

*  Cooper  says  that  they  were  the  two  deities  of  the  morning  and 
evening  twilight,  and  "were  the  origin  of  the  Dioscuri  of  the  Greeks." 
Archyeic  Dictionary.    London,  1876. 

»  Zoological  Mythologj',  vol.  i,  p.  353. 


Gods  Analogous  to  jEscidapius.  ;105 

Tlie  Asvins  were  worshipped  from  an  early  period  by 
the  Hindus,  reference  to  them  being  made  in  the  oldest 
h3'mns.  Cox  says  of  them,  "As  ushering  in  the  health- 
ful light^  of  the  sun,  they  are  like  Asclepios  and  his 
children,  healers  and  physicians;  and  their  power  of 
restoring  the  aged  to  youth  re-appears  in  Medeia,  the 
daughter  of  the  sun."^  In  the  "  Rig-Yeda  "  they  are 
characterized  as  "givers  of  happiness, "^  and  are  said 
"to  be  most  ready  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the  destitute."* 
They  were  believed  to  be  conversant  with  all  medica- 
ments. 

Thrtta  of  the  Parsis,  the  Trtta  of  the  Hindus,  is  a 
remarkable  healing,  semi-divine  personage,  of  whom  a 
great  deal  is  said  in  the  "  Zend  Avesta"  and  other  sacred 
books  of  Aryan  peoples  of  the  east.  According  to  the 
"  Zend  Avesta,"  which  is  from  a  common  source  with 
the  "  Yedas,"  he  is  the  curer  of  the  diseases  caused  by 
the  great  evil  spirit,  Ahriman.  In  the  "  Yedas  "  he  is 
said  to  extinguish  illness  in  men  as  the  gods  extin- 
guished it  in  him,  and  he  can  grant  long  life.  He  drinks 
Soma,  as  did  Indra,  to  acquire  strength  to  kill  the  demon 
Yritra. 

In  the  Parsi  sj^stem  of  religion,  Thrita  received  from 
the  supreme  god,  Ahura-Mazda,^  ten  thousand  healing- 
plants,  which  had  been  growing  around  the  tree  of  life, 
the  white  Hora,^  the  Soma  of  the  Hindus. 

Thrita  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  priests 
of    the    personified    source    of   life    and    health, — "the 

*  Evil  has  always  been  associated  with  darkness.  Harmful  demons 
have  always  disliked  light. 

^  Mythology  of  the  Aryans,  vol.  i,  p.  391. 

»  See  Wilson's  edition,  vol.  iii,  p.  307.  *  Ibid.,  p.  103. 

*  Ormazd,  believed  to  have  been  originally  identical  with  Varuna  of 
the  Vedas. 

®  Believed  to  be  the  Asclepias  acida,  or  Sarcostemma  viminalis,  whose 
juice  yields  an  intoxicating  liquor. 

5* 


106  Medical  Symbolism. 

enlivening,  healing,  fair,  lordly,  golden-e3^ed  Haoma.''^ 
The  destruction  of  a  great  serpent,  Azi  Dahaka,  the 
most  dreadful  Drug, 2  created  by  Angra-Mainyu,  himself 
a  serpent,  to  which  diseases  were  attributed,  was  one  of 
his  fabled  feats. 

There  is  much  that  is  interesting  to  the  physician  in 
the  "  Zend  Avesta,"  but  I  cannot  present  it  here.  One 
interesting  passage  I  ma}^  quote.  Ahura-Mazda  is  ad- 
dressed thus  :  "  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou 
Holy  One !  If  a  worshipper  of  Mazda  want  to  practice 
the  art  of  healing,  on  whom  shall  he  first  prove  his  skill  ? 
On  the  worshippers  of  Mazda,  or  on  the  worshippers  of 
the  Daevas  ?"^  The  reply  is  :  "  On  the  worshippers  of 
the  Dffivas  he  shall  first  prove  himself."     If  on  these  the 

Fig.  14.— SiiiiK-MULiU-KHi.* 

surgeon  use  the  knife  three  times  with  success,"  then  is 
he  fit  to  practice  the  art  of  healing  for  ever  and  ever."* 
SiLiK-MULU-KHi,  the  SOU  of  Hca,  was  a  remarkable 
divinity,  of  whom  I  feel  it  desirable  to  speak.  In  him 
we  have  one  kindh^  disposed  toward  man,  a  special 
friend  of  humanit}',  largely  medical  in  character.  What 
he  was  has  been  unveiled,  mainly  of  late,  through  the 
decipherment  of  cuneiform  inscriptions.  The  Bab3doni- 
ans  prized  him   highl}-.^     He  became  assimilated  with 

*  Zend  Avesta,  vol.  i,  p.  141.  "  Demon.  '  Evil  Spirits. 

*  The  name  is  given  in  the  cuneiform  characters  as  found  in  Norris's 
Assyrian  Dictionary,  p.  853.  It  is  spelled  phonetically.  The  first  three 
wedges  are  the  sign  or  determinative  of  deities. 

'  Zend  Avesta.    Translation  by  Darmesteter,  vol.  ii,  p.  92. 

'  The  devotion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  to  him  is  indicated  in  the  Bible 
(see  2  Chron..  xxxvi,  7,  and  Daniel,  i,  2).  The  great  king  went  so  far  as  to 
say  :  "Merodach  deposited  my  germ  in  my  mother's  womb."  Records  of 
the  Past,  vol,  v,  p.  113, 


Gods  Analogous  to  jEseulapius.  10*7 

Mardnx,^  or  Marodacli,  of  the  Babylono-Assyrians,  and 
Bel,  of  later  times. ^  Space  forbids  me  to  give  a  long 
account  of  him.  Much  can  be  learned  about  him  passim 
in  the  admirable  works  of  M,  Fran9ois  Lenormant,^  and 
in  the  "  Records  of  the  Past."* 

Silik-mulu-khi — that  is,  "  He  who  distributes  good 
among  men"^ — was,  as  already  stated,  the  son  of  Hea,to 
whom  he  remained  subject.  He  overcame  the  dragon  of 
the  deep,  and  is  spoken  of  as  the  Redeemer  of  mankind, 
the  Restorer  of  life,  and  the  Raiser  from  the  dead.  He 
took  shape  among  the  Accadio-Sumerians. 

Hea,  or  Ea,^  "  the  master  of  the  eternal  secrets,"  "the 
god  who  presides  over  theurgical  action,"  revealed  to 
Silik-mulu-khi  "the  mj^sterious  rite,  the  formula,  or  the 
all-powerful  hidden  name  which  shall  thwart  the  efforts 
of  the  most  formidable  powers  of  the  Abyss. "'^  Like 
Apollo,  he  had  special  medical  functions;  indeed,  Mr. 
Sa3^ce  observes  that  "  he  was  emphatically^  the  god  of 
healing,  who  had  revealed  medicine  to  mankind."® 


*  In  an  article  entitled  "Nemrod  et  les  Ecritures  Cuneiformes,"  M. 
Joseph  Grivel  has  occasion  to  speak  of  the  names  of  the  god.  Amar-ud, 
which  is  apparently  the  same  as  Nimrod,  is  a  synonym  of  Merodach.  See 
Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  vol.  iii,  p.  136. 

^  The  older  Bel  was  Elum,  father  of  the  gods. 

3  Chaldean  Magic,  and  the  Beginnings  of  History.  To  M.  Lenormant 
mainly  belongs  the  credit  of  opening  up  the  valuable  stores  of  learning 
wi'apped  in  the  Accadian  and  closely  allied  idioms. 

4  A  series  of  small  volumes,  twelve  in  number,  issued  a  few  years  ago, 
in  London. 

'  Silik-mulu-khi  is  rather  a  descriptive  title  than  a  name.  It  is  the 
designation  used  in  the  magical  and  mythological  texts  of  the  Accadian 
inscriptions. 

^  Of  this  serpentine  god  of  life  and  revealer  of  knowledge,  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  remarks  that  "  there  is  verj'  strong  grounds  for  connecting  Hea, 
or  Hoa,  with  the  serpent  of  Scripture  and  the  paradisiacal  traditions  of  the 
tree  of  life."  See  George  Rawlinson's  second  edition  of  Herodotus,  vol.  i, 
p.  600. 

'  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  19. 

'  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People,  p.  59.    London,  1885. 


108  Medical  Symbolism. 

As  the  symbol  of  his  office,  Silik-mulu-khi  carried  a 
reed,  which  took  the  pln.ce  of  both  the  royal  sceptre  and 
magic  wand,  and  which  was  transmitted  to  the  Assyrian 
Mardux.i      In  a  hymn  it  is  said  : — 

"Golden  reed,  great  reed,  tall  reed  of  the  marshes,  sacred  bed  of  the 

gods, 
*********        **** 
I  am  the  messenger  of  Silik-mulu-khi,  who  causes  all  to  grow  young 

again.  "2 

Although  Sililc-mulu-khi's  functions  were  largel}'' 
medical,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  he  resorted  much 
to  the  use  of  medicaments.  For  it  has  not  yet  been 
made  very  apparent  that  medicine,  properly  so  called, 
was  much  esteemed  by  the  early  Babylono-Ass3'rian 
peoples.  Not  long  ago  Mr.  H.  F.  Talbot,  in  an  inter- 
esting article  on  Assyrian  talismans  and  exorcisms, 
said  :  "  Diseases  were  attributed  to  the  influence  of 
spirits.  Exorcisms  were  used  to  drive  away  those  tor- 
mentors ;  and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  sole  remedy 
employed,  for  I  believe  that  no  mention  has  yet  been 
found  of  medicine."^  This  statement  does  not  hold 
good  now,  as  will  be  shown  later.* 

*  Another  symbol  of  this  god  was  the  thunderbolt  in  the  form  of  a 
sickle,  with  which  he  slew  the  dragon  of  the  deep. 

2  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  190.  ^  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  iii,  p.  139. 

*  Herodotus,  who  visited  the  country,  states  that  the  Babylonians 
"have  no  physicians;  but  when  a  man  is  ill  they  lay  him  in  the  public 
square  and  the  passers-by  come  up  to  him ;  and  if  they  ever  had  his 
disease  themselves,  or  have  known  any  one  who  has  suffered  from  it,  they 
give  him  advice,  recommending  him  to  do  whatever  they  found  good  in 
their  own  case  or  in  the  case  known  to  them  ;  and  no  one  is  allowed  to  pass 
the  sick  man  in  silence,  without  asking  liim  what  his  ailment  is"  (i,  197). 
From  this  it  would  seem  that  Herodotus  might  rather  have  said  that  the 
Babylonians  were  all  doctors,  or  presumed  to  be.  However,  it  is  thought 
that  Jeremiah  refers  to  the  practice  in  Lamentations,  i,  12,  when  he  says  : 
*'  Is  it  nothing  to  you,  all  ye  that  pass  by  ?  Behold  and  see  if  there  be  any 
sorrow  like  unto  my  sorrow."  A  similar  plan  was  certainly  practiced 
elsewhere  than  in  Babylonia.  Strabo  says  that  the  Egyptians  resorted  to 
it  (xvi),  and  in  St,  Mark  it  is  said  that  the  people  "laid  the  sick  in  the 
streets"  (vi,  56)  in  order  to  be  healed  by  Jesus  as  he  passed  along. 


Gods  Analogous  to  ^sculapius.  109 

111  the  cure  of  diseases  the  Babylono-Assyrian  prac- 
titioners first  duly  guarded  the  entrance  to  the  patient's 
chamber.  Images  or  guardian  statues  of  Hea  and 
Silik-mulu-khi  were  placed  one  to  the  right  and  the 
other  to  the  left.  Texts  were  put  on  the  tlireshold  and 
on  the  statues,  after  the  manner  spoken  of  in  Deuter- 
onomy.^ These  were  also  placed  on  the  brow  of  the 
patient  and  about  the  room.  In  bad  cases  recourse  was 
had  to  the  "  mamit,"  something  which  the  evil  spirits 
could  not  resist.  Talbot  gives  the  following  prescription 
from  an  Accadian  tablet : — 

"Take  a  white  cloth.    In  it  place  the  mamit  in  the  sick  man's  right 
hand; 
And  take  a  black  cloth  and  wrap  it  round  his  left  hand. 
Then  all  the  evil  spirits,  and  the  sins  which  he  has  committed, 
Shall  quit  their  hold  of  him  and  shall  never  return. "2 

M.  Lenormant  gives  a  translation  of  an  interesting 
magic  tablet.  Here  is  a  passage  from  it  which  the  con- 
jurer, the  Shaman,  is  supposed  to  speak,  ending  with 
the  usual  adjuration  : — 

"  Disease  of  the  bowels,  the  disease  of  the  heart, 
The  palpitation  of  the  heart, 
Disease  of  the  vision,  disease  of  the  head, 
Malignant  dysentery 
The  humor  which  swells. 

Ulceration  of  the  veins,  the  micturition  which  wastes,* 
Cruel  agony  which  never  ceases. 
Nightmare, — 

Spirit  of  the  Heavens,*  conjure  it ; 
Spirit  of  the  Earth, 5  conjure  it."^ 

What  follows  is  part  of  an  incantation  against  "  the 
diseases  of  the  head  ": — 

*  Deuteronomy,  xi,  18.  '  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  iii,  p.  140. 
3  Was  this  gonorrhoea  or  diabetes  ?    See  Leviticus,  xv. 

*  Ana,  *  Hea.  '  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  4. 


110  Medical  Symbolism. 

**  The  diseases  of  the  head,  like  doves  to  their  dove-cots,  like  grass- 
hoppers into  the  sky. 
Like  birds  into  space, — 
May  they  fly  away  ! 
May  the  invalid  be  replaced  in  the  protecting  hands  of  his  god."* 

Here  is  the  remedy  for  "diseases  of  the  head,"  as 
given  by  Hea  to  Silik-miilu-khi : — 

*'  Come  my  son,  Silik-mulu-khi, 
Take  a  sieve :  draw  some  water  from  the  surface  of  the  river. 
Place  thy  sublime  lip  upon  the  water ; 

Make  it  shine  with  purity  from  thy  sublime  breath,     .     .     . 
Help  the  man,  son  of  his  god     .     .     . 
Let  the  disease  of  his  head  depart ; 
May  the  disease  of  his  head  be  dispersed  like  a  nocturnal  dew."^ 

I  have  already  stated  that  Silikrmulii-khi  became  in 
time  assimilated  with  the  god  possessing  beauty  or 
splendor,  Mardux.^  Here  are  extracts  from  a  li^^mn 
addressed  to  him  after  the  change : — 

"  Merciful  one  among  the  gods, 
Generator  who  brought  back  the  dead  to  life, 
Silik-mulu-khi,  king  of  heaven  and  of  earth. 
******■?:-** 
To  thee  is  the  lip  of  life  ! 
To  thee  are  death  and  life  ! 

I  have  invoked  thy  name,  I  have  invoked  thy  sublimity. 
*********** 
May  the  invalid  be  delivered  from  his  disease  ; 
Cure  the  plague,  the  fever,  the  ulcer."* 

»  Chaldean  Magric,  p.  20.  »  Ibid.,  p.  22. 

3  Lenormant  remarks  that  the  assimilation  was  probably  made  when 
Mardux  had  become  emphatically  the  god  of  the  planet  Jupiter,  "the 
great  fortune"  of  the  astrologers,  which  justified  them  in  connecting  with 
his  other  attributes  the  favorable  and  protecting  office  of  Silik-mulu-khi. 
He  was  originally  a  solar  deity. 

*  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  190. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   PINE-CONE    AS   AN    ATTRIBUTE    OF    ^SCULAPIUS. 

The  fruitful  results  of  studies  in  oriental  history,  in- 
dustriously and  intelligently  pursued  by  able  and  learned 
men  in  recent  times,  are  making  more  and  more  apparent 
the  borrowed  character  of  many  features  of  the  civili- 
zation of  Greece  and  other  western  nations.  Greek, 
Latin,  German,  Irish,  and  other  languages  of  the  Indo- 
European  races,  have  been  shown  to  be  largely  derived 
from  Sanskrit,  or  a  source  similar  to  it,  and  the  various 
mythologies  have  also  been  proved  to  be  more  or  less 
evolutions. 

Of  late,  the  Ass3a-ians,  Babylonians,  and  Accadio- 
Sumerians,  but  especially  the  last,  who  were,  as  is  said 
in  the  Bible,  both  "  a  mighty  "  and  "  an  ancient  na- 
tion,"^ have  been  accorded  a  greater  influence  than 
formerly  on  other  peoples.  There  is  little  or  no  ground 
for  doubt  that  the  first  forms  of  belief,  as  well  as  art, 
came  from  the  East.  It  is  certain  that  in  the  fertile 
region,  about  the  lower  waters  of  tlie  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  there  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  a  remarkable 
unfoldment  of  intellectual,  social,  and  other  elements 
of  progress,  from  the  savage  state.  The  ideas  brought 
with  them  three  thousand  years  or  more  before  our  era, 
to  the  rich  plains  southward  of  Mesopotamia,  and  gath- 
ered there  by  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  hills  of  Elam 
and  their  kin,  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Sumer,^  have 
been  potent  everywhere  to  the  westward. 

*  Jeremiah,  v,  15. 

3  Or  Shinar.    See  Gen.,  xi,  2.    Essentially  Babylonia. 

(Ill) 


112  Medical  Symbolism. 

Tliese  Turanians,  a  dark-complexioned  people,  were 
conquered  by  the  Semites  settled  in  parts  to  the  west 
of  Babylonia,  by  whom  their  culture  and  civilization 
were  appropriated.^ 

The  Accadio-Suraerians  undoubtedly  gave  direction 
and  shape  to  the  religions  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Phoe- 
nicia, and  other  countries,  including  Egypt.  This  means 
a  great  deal,  for  in  the  earlier  stages  of  civilization  the 
religion,  such  as  it  may  be,  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
possible  significance,  both  in  itself  and  its  influence  on 
everything  else.  The  language  of  the  Accadio-Sume- 
rians  long  served  as  the  sacred  one  in  Babylonia  and 
Assyria, 2  and  has  been  characterized  by  Mr.  Sa^'ce  as 
"  the  Sanskrit  of  the  Turanian  family." ^  In  it  are  the 
important  early  cuneiform  inscriptions,  all  the  originals 
of  which  were  written  eighteen  hundred  3^ears  or  so 
before  our  era. 

The  medical  ideas  of  the  Accadio-Sumerian  were 
closely  related  to  his  religion ;  to  liim  the  cause  and 
cure  of  disease  were,  to  a  great  extent,  in  fact  essen- 
tially, supernatural  affairs.  And  thus,  indeed,  it  has 
been  among  all  early  peoples.  Nor  is  it  probable  that 
it  will  ever  be  entirely  otherwise  anywhere.  The  same 
feelings  which  prompted  the  dweller  in  Elam,  or  in  the 
plains  to  the  westward,  to  formulate  his  religion  and 
philosophy  are  still  experienced  by  humanity.  Even  the 
myth-formers  are  not  all  dead.     The  spirit  of  all  the 

*  See  Smith's  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis,  p.  19.  Revised  edition, 
by  Mr.  Sayce,  1880. 

2  The  Semitic  language,  called  Assyrian,  as  the  one  spoken  by  the 
Babylonians,  including  part  of  the  Chaldeans,  before  the  people  of  Assur 
(see  Gen.,  x,  11)  became  a  nation,  which  was  later  than  the  time  of  the 
great  King  Jargon  (B.C.  2000)  ;  and  here  I  may  say  that  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions are  largely  Assyrian.  I  may  add  that  Lenormant  takes  Assur  to  be 
Nimrod,  and  the  latter  Mardux,  reduced  to  the  position  of  a  hero. 

'  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,  vol.  iil,  p.  466. 


The  Pine- Cone  as  an  Attribute  of  JEsculapius.     113 

mythologies  is  yet  filive.  There  are  gods  of  fancy  to- 
da}',  as  there  were  when  Ana  and  Hea  and  Bel  were  in 
the  ascendant.  And  they  are  not  A^ery  different.  The 
nomen,  the  name,  may  vary  much,  but  the  numen,  the 
thing,  for  the  most  part,  does  not. 

The  science  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  not  cleared 
away  from  the  minds  of  a  large  majority,  in  even  the 
most  highly  civilized  nations,  the  belief  that  health  and 
sickness  are  largel}^  subject  to  mj^sterious  spiritual 
powers.  They  are  matters  of  which  the  populace  are 
still  apt  to  entertain  preposterous  notions.  Cullen  well 
remarks  somewhere  that  he  had  found  even  men  with 
trained  logical  faculties,  such  as  lawyers,  satisfied  with 
reasons  of  any  kind,  advanced  to  explain  medical  phe- 
nomena. And  in  truth  the  physician  deals  with  matters 
not  readily  understood.  In  the  very  first  paragraph  of 
his  book  of  books,  has  not  Hippocrates  himself  said  : 
"  Experience  is  fallacious  and  Judgment  difficult  "? 

However,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  there  are  many 
who  sincerely  and  firml}^  believe  that  both  health  and 
disease  are  entirelj^  dependent  on  the  will  of  spiritual 
powers.  Doubtless  every  physician  has  seen  instances 
of  perfect  resignation,  on  the  death  of  even  a  near 
relative,  brought  about  by  the  notion  that  the  be- 
reavement was  "the  will  of  God."  An  innocent  child, 
cut  off  by  diphtheria,  or  scarlet  fever,  or  some  other 
pestilential  disease,  which  exists  only  b}^  tolerance,  with 
a  tearless  mother  bending  over  it,  calm  and  full  of  the 
idea  that  it  was  the  will  of  the  Almighty  to  destroy  it 
in  the  bud,  as  it  were,  is  not  an  uncommon  sight,  and 
one  which  cannot  fail  to  impress  both  deeply  and  sadly 
the  intelligent  observer.  Impious  and  erroneous  doc- 
trine, to  be  sure ;  but,  nevertheless,  part  and  parcel  of 
many,  nay,  most  of  the  creeds  of  the  day. 


114  Medical  Symbolism. 

My  statements  are  not  rashly  made  and  baseless.  I 
miaht  almost  ask  in  vain  for  a  creed  in  which  an  abso- 
lute  declaration  of  the  life  and  death  of  mortals  being 
entirely'  in  tlie  hands  of  supra-mundane  powers  is  not 
made.  For  example,  in  the  chapter  of  the  "  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,"  on  "  the  order  for  the  visitation  of 
the  sick,"  it  is  said  :  "  Dearly  beloved,  know  this,  that 
Almighty  God  is  the  Lord  of  life  and  death,  and  of  all 
things  to  them  pertaining,  as  youth,  strength,  health,  age, 
weakness,  and  sickness.  Wherefore,  whatsoever  your 
sickness  be,  know  you  certainly  that  it  is  God's  visita- 
tion." For  relief,  the  means  is  indicated  in  this  petition  : 
"0  Lord  I  look  down  from  heaven,  behold,  visit,  and 
relieve  this  thy  servant."  There  is  no  doubt  about  the 
meaning  of  these  passages  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the 
ideas  contained  in  them  are  essentially  those  which  were 
current  among  various  peoples  of  remote  antiquity.  Of 
course,  to  one  who  sincerel}^  entei'tains  such  ideas  there 
can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  science  and  art  of  medicine. 
But  we  know  that  they  rarely  or  never  stand  in  the 
way  of  a  due  resort  to  rational  medical  treatment. 
Trul}^,  the  liuman  mind  is,  in  many  instances,  "  many- 
sided." 

What  has  just  been  said  will  indicate  that  it  is  very 
improbable  that  the  so-called  religious  literature  of  early 
times  fairly  represents  the  state  of  medical  practice. 
Assuredly,  one  could  form  no  idea  of  the  state  of 
the  healing  art  at  present  from  the  perusal  of  a  manual 
of  orthodox  religious  literature. 

However,  as  I  have  intimated  above,  the  prevalence 
of  an  ostensible  belief  in  the  cause  and  cure  of  diseases 
by  supernatural  powers  does  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
existence  and  practice  of  a  more  or  less  rational  art  of 
healing. 


The  Pine- Cone  as  an  Attribute  of  ^sculapius.     115 

The  Chaldean  1  looked  to  the  gods  for  the  removal 
of  the  evils  which  afflicted  him  ;  and  he  had  his  set 
earthly  ways  by  which  to  bring  about  the  result  desired. 
Supplication,  sacrifice,  and  the  like  were  practiced, 
but  material  means  were  not  entirely  ne2:lected.  In 
the  sacred  book  of  the  Parsis  it  is  said  :  "  If  several 
healers  offer  themselves  together,  namely,  one  who  heals 
with  the  knife,  one  who  heals  with  herbs,  and  one  who 
heals  with  the  Holy  Word,  it  is  this  one  who  will  best 
drive  away  sickness  from  the  bod}^  of  the  faithful. "^  In 
another  place  the  "  Hoh^  Word  "  is  pronounced  "  the 
best  healing  of  all  remedies."^  Evidently,  one  might 
resort  to  other  means,  if  he  chose.  And  here  I  may 
remark,  that  in  the  practices  of  ^sculapius  there  was 
precisely  the  same  threefold  means  of  cure,  as  will  be 
seen  by  referring  to  the  chapter  on  the  god. 

It  may  be  affirmed  with  confidence  that  no  people  in 
either  ancient  or  modern  times  has  relied  exclusively  on 
the  good  offices  of  supernatural  powers  for  the  cure  of 
diseases.  According  to  Catlin,  the  Indian  doctors  first 
prescribed  "  roots  and  herbs,  of  which  they  have  a 
great  variety  of  species  ;  and  when  these  have  all  failed, 
their  last  resort  is  to  medicine."*  A  reverse  plan  was 
the  more  common.  In  that  interesting  book,  "  Ecclesi- 
asticus,"  written  by  one  well  informed,  and  even  at  a 
time  when  medicine  was  far  advanced,  the  sick  man  is 
curiously  advised  to  pray  and  sacrifice  to  God  first,  and 
then  to  give  place  to  the  physician."^  The  old  Hebrew 
conveys  the  idea  that,  when  nothing  else  could  be  done, 
resort  should  be  had  to  medical  men.     He  thoughtfully 

*  Kaldu,  or  Kaldi,  was  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Accadio-Sumerians  that 
r'>se  to  prominence  about  nine  centuries  before  onr  era.  The  title  was 
subsequently  given  to  the  whole  race. 

=  Zend  Avesta,  vol.  i,  p.  85.  ^  Ibid.,  vol.  ii,  p.  44, 

*  North  American  Indians,  vol.  i,  p.  75.        '  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxviii,  13. 


116  Medical  Symbolism. 

remarks  that  "  there  is  a  time  when  thou  must  fall  into 
tlieir  hands. "^ 

Now,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  Grecian  god  of 
medicine  was  viewed  by  some  through  a  veil  of  super- 
stition brought  from  the  East.  In  connection  with 
statues  of  him  were  things  the  meaning  of  which  would 
be  entirely  unintelligible  without  a  previous  knowledge 
of  ideas  entertained  in  Assyria  and  other  countries. 
One  of  these,  the  special  theme  of  this  chapter,  is  very 
interestino;  because  of  its  historical  connections.  A 
stud}-  of  it  brings  to  light  much  exceedingl}^  interesting 
information. 

The  pine-  or  cedar-  cone,  or,  as  some  have  spoken  of 
it,  the  pine-apple,  was  figured  in  the  hand  of  the  crys- 
elephantine  statue  of  ^sculapius,  made  by  Calamis  for 
the  temple  at  Sicyon,  in  Arcadia,  as  in  representations 
of  Mardux.  What  was  the  meaning  of  this  peculiar 
object  ?  Some  have  taken  it  to  have  been  a  phallic  sym- 
bol. The  presence  of  it  on  the  thyrsus  of  Dionysus, ^ 
brought  by  him  from  the  East,  would  seem  to  support 
that  view.     It  has  also  been  regarded  as  a  flame. ^ 

Whether  the  cedar-cone  of  the  Sicyonian  statue  of 
^sculapius  was  representative  of  the  reproductive  organ 
or  of  fire  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  largely  in  use 
by  the  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  and  others,  to  restore 
liealth  as  well  as  to  overcome  witchcraft  and  the  like. 
One  sees  it  in   the  hand  of  the  winged,  eagle-headed 

»  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxviii,  13.  '  Bacchus. 

3  Fire  was  dulj^  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  The  worship  was  closely 
related  to  that  of  the  sun.  Atar  of  the  Zend  Avesta  means  fire,  and  a 
personification  of  it,  spoken  of  as  the  son  of  Ahura-Mazda,  is  character- 
ized as  "the  god  who  is  a  full  source  of  glory,  the  god  who  is  a  full  source 
of  healing"  (vol.  ii,  p.  8).  The  Parsis  and  also  the  Hindus  were  forbidden 
to  blow  a  fire  lest  the  effete  emanations  from  the  system,  present  in  the 
breath,  m=ght  contaminate  the  flame.  Menstruating  women  were  forbid- 
den even  to  look  at  it. 


The  Pine-Co7ie  as  an  Attribute  of  ^scidapius.     117 


figure  from  Nimroiid,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
a  cut  of  the  same  is  given  here.  Two  similar  genii  or 
figures,  very  like  the  gryphon  of  Greek  mythology  con- 
nected with  Apollo,  are  represented  watching,  like  the 
cherubim  at  the  gate  of  Eden,  over  the  priests  who  at- 
tend about  the  sacred  tree  of  life, — that  apple-,  fig-,  palm-, 
or  somo-  tree,  serpent-guarded,  which  yields  fruit  or 
ambrosia, in  which, as  De  Gubernatis  says,"  the  life, the 
fortune,  the  glory,  the  strength,  and  the  riches  of  the 
hero  have  their  beginning, "i  and  which  is  so  prominent 
in  the  sculptures  and  records  of 
Oriental  peoples.  The  object  is 
often  seen  extended  under  the 
king's  nose,  apparently  that  he 
may  inhale  the  vitalizing  emana- 
tions from  it,  after  the  manner  of 
the  ancients'  notion  of  the  mode 
of  reception  of  the  "  breath  of 
life."^  It  even  ai)pears  on  the 
tree  of  life  in  some  of  its  conven- 
tional forms.  Thus,  La3ard  sa3\s  : 
"  The  flowers  at  the  end  of  the 
branches  are  frequently  replaced 
in  later  Assyrian  monuments  and 
on  cylinders  by  the  fir-  or  pine-  cone,  and  sometimes  by 
a  fruit  or  ornament  resembling  the  pomegranate."^ 

In  connection  with  what  he  has  to  say  about  the 
cones  on  the  tree  of  life,  George  Smith  expresses  the 
opinion  that  "  the  Accadians  brought  the  tradition  of 


Fig.  15.— The  Pine-  or 
Cedar-  Cone  as  8een  in 
THE  Hand  of  a  Winged 
Figure  from  Nimroud. 


•  Zoological  Mythology,  vol.  i,  p.  410. 

^  See  Gen.,  ii,  7.  Hippocrates  appears  to  take  pneuma,  the  breath, 
and  the  soul  and  vital  principle  to  be  the  same.  It  is  still  a  common  thing 
to  hear  the  breath  spoken  of  as  the  divine  and  immortal  element  in  man. 

3  Ninevah  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii,  p,  233.  London,  1849.  See  Ex., 
xxviii,  33-34,  and  1  Kings,  vii,  41-42. 


118 


Medical  Symbolism, 


the  fir-cones  with  them  from  their  original  seat  in  the 
colder,  mountainous  land  of  Media,  where  the  fir^  was 
plentiful." 

The  use  of  the  fir-cone  in  the  cure  of  disease  has 
been  made  evident  by  recent  translations  of  cuneiform 
inscriptions. 2  It  is  said  by  Lenormant  that  in  a  "  magic 
fragment  as  yet  inedited  the  god  Hea,  the  averrunciis 
par  excellence,  the  vivifier  and  preserver  of  the  human 
race  which  he  has  created,  prescribes  to  his  son  Mar- 
duk,  the  mediator,  a  mysterious  rite  which  will  cure  a 
man  whose  malady  is  caused  by  an  attack  of  demons. 
"  Take,"  says  he,  "  to  him  the  fruit  of  the  cedar,  and 
hold  it  in  front  of  the  sick  person  ; 
the  cedar  is  the  tree  which  gives  the 
pure  charm  and  repels  the  inimical 
demons,  who  lay  snares."^ 

In  the  cedar-cone,  then,  in  the 
hand  of  the  figure  of  ^sculapius  we 
have  the  symbol  and  instrument  of 
"the  life  charm,"  of  which  the  god 
Hea  was  the  master  and  the  son  the 
dispenser  ;  and  I  may  add  (as  Lenormant  has  suggested) 
that  when  fruits  of  this  nature  adorn  the  sacred  plant 
they  characterize  it  more  emphatically  than  ever  as  the 
tree  of  life. 


Fig.  16.— The  Tree 
OF  Life. 


*  Fir-trees  were  regarded  with  much  favor  in  the  East.  Ezekiel 
likens  the  Assyrian  nation  to  a  great  cedar,  envied  by  "aU  the  trees  of 
Eden,"  none  being  "like  unto  him  in  his  beauty."    Ez.,  xxxi,  passim. 

*  Medical  virtues  are  inherent  in  fir-trees.  Hence,  there  was  a  good 
foundation  for  the  Accadian  superstition.  It  is  curious  to  observe  that 
"among  the  Dakotah  tribe  of  Indians  the  white  cedar-tree  is  believed  to 
have  a  supernatural  power,  and  its  leaves  are  burned  as  incense  to  pro- 
pitiate the  gods."    See  Emerson's  Indian  Myths,  p.  241. 

'  Beginnings  of  History,  p.  90. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DIBBARA,!   A    GOD    OF   PESTILENCE. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  an  exception  to  the 
rule,  that  every  people  has,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
referred  the  causation  of  epidemic  and  other  diseases  to 
supernatural  powers. ^  In  Oriental  countries  evil  spirits 
were  believed  to  be  accountable  for  it;  and,  indeed,  in 
the  West,  the  Red  Indians  entertained  the  same  notion, 
as  the  reader  of  Mr.  Dorman's  interesting  book^  is  well 
aware.  The  uncultured  mind  cannot,  it  would  seem, 
grasp  the  idea  that  things  which  the  senses  cannot 
readily  perceive  may,  nevertheless,  be  entirely  natural. 

The  Babylono-Ass3^rians,  like  the  American  Indians, 
believed  in  the  existence  of  innumerable  bad  as  well  as 
good  spirits ;  in  fact,  to  them  every  object  and  force  in 
nature  was  believed  to  have  a  zi^  or  spirit,  more  or  less 
subject  to  control.*  The  bad  ones,  of  whom  there  were 
seven  emphatically  such,  delighted  in  injuring  man  and 
afflicting  him  with  diseases,  often  taking  possession  of 
him.  Evidently  this  doctrine,  when  fully  developed, — 
that  is,  when  the  bad  spirits  were  almost  or  quite  as  free 
to  act  as  the  good  ones,  as  among  the  Parsis, — afforded  a 
simple  and  very  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  existence 
of  apparent  good  and  evil  in  the  world.     The  practice 

*  Mr.  Sayce  gives  the  name  as  Lubara.  8ee  Ancient  Empires  of  the 
East,  p.  157. 

2  According  to  Mr.  Black,  disease  and  death  have  been  referred  by 
the  unscientific  to  three  great  sources,  namely:  (1)  the  anger  of  an 
oif ended  external  spirit ;  (2)  the  supernatural  powers  of  a  human  enemy ; 
(3)  the  displeasure  of  the  dead.  See  Folk-medicine,  p.  4,  published  by  the 
Folk-lore  Society.    London,  1883. 

^  The  Origin  of  Primitive  Superstitions.    Philadelphia,  1881. 

*  See  Sayce's  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  146. 

(119) 


120  Medical  Symbolism. 

of  medicine,  based  on  such  views,  could,  at  best,  be  little 
better  than  mere  Shamanism. 

I  may  here  observe  that  the  Chaldeans  and  others 
regarded  imprecations  as  effective  in  causing  diseases,  as 
well  as  other  evils.  In  a  quotation  from  a  tablet,  given 
by  Lenormant,  it  is  said  : — 

"  The  malevolent  imprecation  acts  on  man  like  a  wicked  demon  ; 
The  voice  which  curses  has  power  over  him."  i 

I  need  hardly  say  that  a  very  similar  belief  is  still 
all  but  universal.  It  appears  to  be  instructive.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  practiced  enormously.  From  the  "damn  you  " 
of  the  street-urchin  to  tlie  formal  and  solemn  "  anatliema" 
of  the  Pope  of  Rome,  we  are  familiar  with  all  grades 
of  it. 

There  has  alwa3^s  and  everywhere  been  a  tendency  to 
accord  great  divinities  power  to  dispense  both  evil  and 
good.  Men  have  made  their  chief  gods  like  themselves, 
anthropomorphic,  variable  in  their  feelings  and  actions. 
Apollo  could  cause  disease  and  he  could  remove  it.^  Of 
the  Hebrews'  God  the  same  is  true.  Offense  at  the  "  sins" 
of  men  in  both  cases  inspires  the  infliction  of  pestilential 
and  other  diseases.  The  numbering  of  the  people  by 
David,  although  forbidden,  leads  to  the  occurrence  of  a 
destructive  epidemic. ^  In  "  Ecclesiasticus  "  it  is  ex- 
plicitly said,  "  He  that  sinneth  in  the  sight  of  his  Maker 
shall  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  physician."* 

Among  those  who  clothed  one  evil  spirit  with  impe- 
rial power,  so  to  speak,  that  spirit  has  been  mainly  held 
accountable  for  the  occurrence  of  disease.     The  Iranian, 

*  Chaldean  Map:ic,  p.  64. 

»  Says  Tide :  "  The  operation  oi  the  sun  is  two-fold,  beneficial  and 
terril)le ;  it  quickens  or  it  destroys  life.  The  Greeks  united  both  char- 
acteristics in  Phcebus  Apollo."     History  of  the  Egyptian  Religion,  p.  45. 

'  2  Samuel,  xxiv.  ♦  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxviii,  15. 


Dihhara,  a  God  of  Pestilence.  121 

Angra-Mainyu,  furnishes  an  example.  And  since  the 
notion  of  the  "devil"  (our  devil)  began/  he  has  been 
often  charged  with  the  offense.  Thus,  we  are  told  in  the 
Bible  that  it  was  he  that  "  smote  Job  with  sores,  from 
the  sole  of  his  foot  unto  his  crown. "^  Still,  in  this  case 
he  was  subject  to  orders,  so  to  speak. 

Now,  it  would  be  strange  if,  among  the  evil  spirits 
the  exuberant  fancy  of  uncultured  man  has  called  into 
existence,  there  were  not  a  leading  one  with  the  special 
function  of  causing,  at  least,  pestilential  diseases.  Such 
a  one  is  not  met  with  in  the  mytholog}^  of  the  Romans, 
Greeks,  or  even  the  Egyptians  ;^  but  a  remarkable  one 
is  found  in  the  Accadio-Sumerian,  Dibbara,  the  leader 
of  the  plague-demons.*  He  was  subject  to  the  orders 
of  Ana  and  Hea.  In  the  Izdhubar  legend  of  the  flood  it  is 
said  :  "  Let  Dibbara  appear,  and  let  men  be  mown  down." 

Our  knowledge  of  Dibbara,  or  Lubara,  is  largely  of 
modern  date.  Until  the  recent  translations  of  cuneiform 
inscriptions  were  made,  the  records  of  him  had  almost 
faded  out  of  sight.  On  his  exploits  there  is  an  interesting 
chapter  in  George  Smith's  "  Chaldean  Account  of  Gene- 
sis."* His  historj^  promises  to  throw  considerable  light 
on  passages  in  the  Bible  and  elsewhere.  Thus,  his  title 
of  "  the  darkening  one"  appears  to  have  suggested  to  the 
Psalmist  the  phrase,  "  The  pestilence  that  walketh  in 

*  It  appears  that  the  idea  of  the  devil  is  flrst  brought  into  clear  relief 
in  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  where  it  is  said :  "  By  the  envy  of  the  devil  death 
came  into  the  world"  (ii,  25).  The  Hebrew  demonology  is  usjially  said  to 
be  of  Iranian  origin,  but  it  may  just  as  likely  have  sprung  from  a  Turanian 
source,  either  directly  or  through  their  Semitic  kin  in  Babylonia. 

^  Job,  ii,  7. 

'  Set,  called  Typhon  by  the  Greeks,  the  embodiment  of  physical  and 
moral  evil,  was  regarded  as  the  Egyptian  god  of  death.  Plagues  were  at- 
tributed to  him. 

*  The  plague  maiden  of  Teutonic  folk-lore  is  somewhat  like  Dibbara. 
See  Grimm's  Teutonic  Mythology  (translation),  p.  1185. 

'  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis,  vol.  viii. 

6    F 


122  Medical  Symbolism. 

darkness."^     He   was,  probably,  the  prototype  of  the 
destroying  "  angel  "  spoken  of  in  the  Bible.  ^ 

Dibbara,  like  many  other  personifications  of  evil, 
partook  of  the  serpentine  form.  Not  unlikely  he  was 
originally,  to  a  great  degree,  similar  to,  if  not  identical 
with,  the  fabulous  dragon  combated  b}^  Marduk.  This 
was  an  embodiment  of  the  chaos  of  the  deep,  the  prin- 
ciple of  chaos  and  darkness.  He  was  the  serpent  of  the 
night,  and  may  have  been  primarily  the  darkness  over- 
come by  the  sun. 

»  Psalms,  xci,  6.         '^  2  Sam.,  xxiv,  13  et  seq.,  and  2  Kings,  xix,  35. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

HYGEIA,   THE   GODDESS   OF   HEALTH. 


') 


The  need  of  a  special  divinity  to  preserve  people  m 
a  state  of  health  was  widely  felt,  even  in  very  eavly 
times.  In  Egypt,  Ass3'ria,  Greece,  and  elsewhere,  this 
need  found  pronounced  expression.  Isis  and  Istar^ 
and  Athene  were  each,  in  one  way  or  another,  accorded 
great  power  over  bodily  or  mental 
health.  But  the  Greeks,  in  their 
Hygeia,  markedly  emphasized  and 
entirely  specialized  the  conception. 
Here  we  have  an  exclusively  health 
divinity,  who  had  more  or  less  of 
a  counterpart  in  the  Salus  of  the 
Romans, — a    e'oddess    highly   es-    fig.  17 .-serpent  and 

'  ^^  &       J  BoWIi  OF  HYGEIA.2 

teemed,  worshipped  on  set   days, 

and  to  whom  a  fine  temple  was  devoted  at  the  Eternal 

City,  situated  near  the  gate  called  from  it  Porta  Salu- 

taris. 

From  the  preceding  statements,  the  reader  will 
observe  that  the  divinities  who  were  specially  interested 

*  The  wife  of  Hea,  the  queen  of  the  gods,  Davkina,  was  a  health 
goddess.  In  an  inscription  Marduk  is  sent  to  a  dying  man,  and  it  is 
further  said : — 

"Sprinkle  holy  water  over  him. 
He  shall  hear  the  voice  of  Hea. 
Davkina  shall  protect  him  ; 

And  Marduk,  eldest  son  of  Heaven,  shall  find  him  a  happy  habitation." 
See  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  iii,  p.  142.    She  was  invoked  by  women 
in  labor. 

2  This  figure  is  copied  from  one  given  by  W.  R.  Cooper  in  his  essay  on 
"Serpent  Myths  of  Ancient  Egypt."  See  Transactions  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  vol.  vi,  p.  321.    London,  1873. 

(123) 


124  Medical  Symbolism. 

in  the  preservation  of  health  were  all  females.  This  is 
an  exceedingly  interesting  fact.  It  is  not  an  incongru- 
ons  one,  either.  The  ancients  were  keenly  alive  to  the 
sense  of  fitness  in  things  ;  and  hence  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  they  made  a  mistake  in  Hygeia,  the  health  goddess. 
From  the  exercise  of  the  great  function  of  nurturing  and 
caring  for  the  young  of  the  species,  woman  has  sufficient 
claim  to  the  distinction  of  being,  par  excellence,  the 
guardian  of  health.  Why  the  goddess  should  be  a  maid 
rather  than  a  matron  is  not  extremely  clear.  Likely 
tlie  idea  was  to  present  in  her  a  woman  just  mature  and 
free  from  blemish,  in  a  topically  perfect  state. 

However,  we  have  in  Hygeia,  "  daughter  of  Paeon, 
queen  of  every  joy,"  to  use  the  appropriate  words  with 
which  Armstrong  starts  off  in  the  invocation  to  her,  at 
the  beginning  of  his  fine  poem,^  a  very  interesting  and 
beautiful  conce[)tion.  It  is  eas}^  to  understand  why  this 
divinity  became  very  popular.     0  Goddess  I  if — 

"But  for  thee, 
Nature  would  sicken,  nature  soon  would  die," 

as  the  author  just  quoted  declares,  thy  worship  might 
well  have  become  universal,  for  without  health  life 
is  burdensome,  a  gift  of  doubtful  value  1  Health  and 
long  life  are  things  mortals  have  alwa^^s  craved  and 
always  prized.  In  that  interesting  Hebrseo-Chaldean 
history,  "  Tobias,"  Sara,  with  her  husband,  gives  utter- 
ance to  a  truly  human  prayer  :  "  Have  mercy  on  us,  O 
Lord,  have  mercy  on  us,  and  let  us  grow  old  both 
together  in  health. "^  "At  heart,"  says  Dr.  Brinton, 
"all  prayers  are  for  preservation;  the  burden  of  all 
litanies  is  a  begging  for  life."*' 

1  The  Art  of  Preserving  Health.  First  published  in  1744.  One  of  the 
very  few  great  medical  poems. 

»  Tobias,  viii,  10.  »  American  Hero-Myths,  p.  19.    1882, 


Hygeia,  the  Goddess  of  Health.  125 

The  S3^mbolic  representation  of  the  myth  of  Hygeia 
afforded  a  fine  subject  for  the  sculptors  and  other  artists. 
Extremely  attractive  figures  of  her  were  produced.  One 
of  them,  at  least,  is  doubtless  familiar  to  the  reader.  I 
have  reference  to  the  one  in  which  she  is  represented  as 
a  blooming  girl  with  a  serpent  twined  around  her  left 
armi  ^nd  feeding  out  of  a  patera  or  chalice  held  in  her 
right  hand.  With  this  ideal  in  his  mind,  the  late  Dr. 
Aitken  Meigs,  in  a  remarkable  address^  delivered  in  18T9, 
pronounces  "  the  high-born  maid  "  to  be  "  of  beauty's 
types,  the  highest,  best  idea,"  and  continues  : — 

"Nor  fragile  she,  nor  pale,  but  ruddy,  strong, 
And  gladsome  as  a  tuneful,  joyous  song; 
Her  comely  form,  in  swelling  curves  designed. 
Is  perfect  grace,  with  glowing  strength  combined; 
Crimson  and  white  in  her  fair  face  contend. 
Upon  her  cheeks  in  sweet  confusion  blend ; 
Her  rosy  lips  excel  the  coral's  brightness, 
Brow,  nose,  and  chin  are  fleecy  ways  of  whiteness; 
Loose,  flowing,  falls  her  hair,  a  golden  spray  ; 
Forth  from  her  lustrous  eyes  she  scatters  day. 

In  one  small  hand  a  cup  she  deftly  holds, 
Whilst  round  her  soft,  white  arm,  in  many  folds 
A  serpent  twines  and  from  the  chalice  drinks. 
Low  crouches  sometimes,  at  her  feet,  a  sphinx. 
From  these  strange  emblems  learn  her  character : 
How  very  cunning  she,  and  how  exact  her 
Knowledge  and  profound  ;  how  with  wondrous  skill 
Her  youth  renews,  and  is  discreet  and  still." 

As  will  be  observed,  Dr.  Meigs  gives  an  explanation 
of  the  symbols  usually  connected  with  figures  of  Hygeia, 

»  This  arrangement  of  the  serpent  is  seen  in  an  Egyptian  priestess,  a 
picture  of  which  is  given  in  Cooper's  essay,  already  referred  to. 

^  It  has  been  published,  I  think,  in  pamphlet  form,  but  the  copy  I  have 
was  issued  in  1882  in  connection  with  the  March  and  April  numbers  of  a 
monthly  published  in  the  interest  of  JefPerson  Medical  College  and  her 
alumni.  The  College  and  Clinical  Record.  There  are  a  dozen  octavo 
pages  of  it. 


126 


3Iedical  Symbolism. 


whom  he  regarded  as  to  the  physician  what  tlie  chosen 
maid  was  to  the  knight  of  old, — the  patron  saint.  The 
view  taken  of  the  serpent  is  not  satisfactor}'^,  although 
better  than  that  held  by  Cuvier,  namel}^  that  it  is  "  to 
show  that  temperance  is  the  source  of  lengthened  life."^ 
And  if  one  take  the  reptile  to  be  s3'mbolic  of  the  art  of 
healing,  wh}'  it  should  be  connected  with  the  goddess 

of  health  is  not  clear.  In  this 
connection  its  presence  might 
.  imply  that  it  is  only  through 
medicine  that  health  can  be 
preserved.  Taking  it  as  S3^m- 
bolic  of  life,  one  has  little 
difficulty  in  understanding  its 
appropriateness.  Closely  at- 
tached to  her,  and  drawing 
nourishment  from  a  chalice  held 
in  her  hand,  the  meaning  might 
be,  that  health  and  life  are  inti- 
mately related  to  each  other, 
the  former  sustaining  the  lat- 
ter. Regarding  it,  however,  as 
simply  a  bonus  genius  is  not  out 
of  the  way.  The  mode  of  rep- 
resenting it  at  Rome  and  else- 
F1G.I8-HYGKIA.  (Asgiven    where   stroni2,lv   supports    this 

m  Murray's  Mythology.)  ^  "  ^^ 

view,  namel}^,  encircling  the 
altar  of  the  goddess,  with  the  head  extending  over  it.* 
In  Teutonic  mythology,  "the  white  lady  with  the  snake  " 
was  associated  with  medicinal  springs. 

According  to  the  mythological  record,  Hygeia^  was 
the  daughter  of  the  god  of  medicine,  ^sculapiiis.     Of 


*  Animal  KinKdom,  vol.  ix,  p.  309.        »  See  Tooke's  Pantheon,  p.  296. 
»  See  Grimm's  Teutonic  Mythology  (translation),  pp.  588, 1150. 


Eygeia^  the  Goddess  of  Health.  127 

her  personal  history  one  might  almost  say  that  it  is  a 
blank. 

Numerous  representations  of  Hygeia  were  to  be 
found  in  Greece,  and  later  in  Rome.  One  was  usually 
placed  by  the  side  of  each  of  JEsculapius. 

The  worship  of  Hygeia  began  soon  after  that  of 
^sculapius  and  became  wide-spread  and  popular.  The 
Romans  were  quite  as  devoted  in  their  attentions  to  her 
as  the  Greeks. 

1  have  said  sufficient  already  to  indicate  that  there 
was  no  divinity  precisely  similar  to  Hj^geia  in  Egypt, 
or  any  eastern  country.  Some  of  the  great  goddesses 
were  believed  to  exercise  functions  akin  to  hers.^  In- 
deed, many  of  the  prominent  divinities,  from  the  spouse 
of  Hea  down,  had  accorded  to  them  more  or  less  control 
over  affairs  of  health  and  life.  Dr.  Meigs  conveys  a 
wrong  impression  when  he  says  : — 

"  Hygeia,  daughter  of  Asclepios, 
Descended  from  Apollo  Delios, 
Adored  as  Maut^  beside  the  mystic  Nile, 
With  Amen-Ra  in  Theban  peristyle."  3 

There  is  about  as  much  reason  to  say  chat  Athene 
was  Hygeia,  as  that  Maut  was,  or  Isis,  although,  as 
Ebers  says,  she  was  the  divinity  "to  be  called  on  to 
destroy  the  germs  of  disease."*  Arguments  could  be 
advanced  in  favor  of  the  idea  that  Hj^geia  sprang  into 
existence  as  a  personification  of  the  great  serpent- 
accompanied  virgin,  river-mist,  or  cloud-goddess,  Pallas 
Athene,  in  her  capacity  of  health-preserver.  The  claim 
in  regard  to  Isis  is  little  or  no  better;  and,  in  fact,  one 

*  For  Cooper's  view  of  her  origm,  see  quotation,  p.  93. 

2  Maut,  Mat,  or  Mut,  is  to  Amen-Ra  what  Artemis  was  to  Zeus,  and 
Juno  to  Jupiter.  She  might  he  viewed  as  a  form  of  the  more  familiar 
Isis,  and  from  close  relationship  is  often  confounded  wath  Neith. 

'  From  address  referred  to  on  page  125.        *  Princess,  vol.  ii,  p.  296. 


128  Medical  Symbolism. 

form  of  Isis,  called  Neith,  or  Neit,  the  great  mother  of 
the  sun-god,  Ra,  and  the  titular  goddess  of  Sais,  has 
always  1  been  believed  to  correspond  closely  with  Athene. 
The  former  was  not  only  usually  accompanied  by  a 
serpent,  like  the  latter,  but  was  often  represented  by 
one ;  still,  the  same  might  be  said  of,  perhaps,  all  the 
Egyptian  goddesses. 

•  See  Plato's  Timaeus. 


CHAPTER  XY. 

MEDICAL   TALISMANS. 

It  is  well  at  the  start  to  form  a  definite  conception 
of  what  a  talisman  means.  It  is  a  species  of  charm  ;  it 
differs  from  an  amulet.  Both  are  of  the  character  of 
fetiches;  that  is,  objects  in  nature,  or  of  art,  believed  to 
possess  magical  power.  If  the  object  be  ascribed  con- 
sciousness and  other  mental  attributes,  it  is,  properly 
speaking,  an  idol.  Unlike  the  amulet,  the  talisman,  to 
be  eflfective,  need  not  be  kept  about  the  person.  But 
the  main  characteristic  feature  of  the  talisman  is  astro- 
nomical, or,  rather,  astrological ;  it  is  accorded  virtue 
principally^  because  made  when  two  planets  are  in  con- 
junction, or  when  a  star  has  reached  its  culminating 
point.  As  one  would  expect,  it  has  been  customary  to 
have  something  about  the  talisman  to  indicate  that  it  is 
such  ;  but  many  engravings  found  on  them  have  no 
astronomical  import  at  all. 

The  talisman  1  has  a  long  history.  To  know  when  it 
came  into  use  one  must  go  back  to  the  time  when  the 
study  of  the  stars  and  their  influence,  real  or  supposed, 
on  mundane  affairs  began.  Although  it  has  been  as- 
serted ^  tliat  Adam  acquired  a  knowledge  of  astrology 
through  inspiration,  it  is  safe  to  hold  that  the  Accadian^ 
star-gazers,  inhabitants  of  the  hills  of  Elam,  first  gave 
shape  to  this,  in  great  part,  pseudo-philosophy  of  nature, 

*  The  famous  one  brought  from  the  East  to  Scotland  and  caUed  the 
"Lee-Penny"  has  an  interesting  history.  Sir  Walter  Scott  speaks  at 
length  of  it  in  his  work,  "The  Talisman."  Says  the  great  novelist:  "Its 
virtues  are  still  applied  to  for  stopping  blood  and  in  cases  of  canine  mad- 
ness "  (p.  287). 

'^  By  Josephus.  ^  rj.j^g  name  signifies  highland. 

6*  (129) 


130  3Iedical  Symbolism. 

which  was  widely  believed  in  by  man}'-  peoples,  and  still 
has  numerous  sincere  adherents  everywhere.  Mr.  Proc- 
tor ventures  to  declare  that  "  the  idea  that  the  stars  in 
their  course  rule  the  fate  of  men  and  nations  "^  is  a  pre- 
dominant one  of  the  race.^  In  Babylonia,  Assyria, 
Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere,  it  received  much 
attention ;  indeed,  it  was  part  and  parcel  of  the  prevail- 
ing religions,  most  of  the  Oriental  systems  being  largely 
astronomical  in  origin.  And  the  Chaldean  or,  rather, 
Accadian  astrolo2:er's  work  is  obvious  enouoh  to  this 
day  ;3  it  is  seen  in  the  division  of  time  into  the  week  of 
seven  da3^s,  with  the  seventh  one  of  rest,  the  Sabbath,* 
and  the  mode  of  regulation  of  religious  times  and 
seasons,^  to  say  nothing  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and 
so  on. 

It   is   stated    by   Yitruvius  ^    that   astrology  "^    was 

*  The  Great  Pyramid,  p.  159. 

^  It  stands  out  prominent  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.  Tlie  whole 
host  of  heaven  was  created  for  earthly  purposes. 

'  The  reader  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  learns  much  of  the  repute  of  the 
Chaldeans  as  astrologers.  The  Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  all 
astrologers  Chaldeans.  That  people,  I  may  say,  never  gave  the  class  legal 
countenance. 

*  In  an  old  Accadian  tablet  hearing  on  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath 
by  the  king,  it  is  said,  among  other  things:  "INIedicine  for  his  sickness 
of  body  he  may  not  apply."  See  Smith's  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis, 
p.  89. 

*  According  to  the  Bible  narrative,  which  Lenormant  says  is  "a  tra^ 
dition  whose  origin  is  lost  in  the  night  of  the  remotest  ages  and  which  all 
the  great  nations  of  Western  Asia  possessed  in  common,  with  some  varia- 
tions" (Beginnings  of  History,  p.  xv),  the  luminaries  were  placed  in  the 
heavens  "  to  divide  the  day  from  the  night  and  to  be  signs  for  the  time  of 
festivals,  the  days  and  the  years"  (Gen.,  1,  14),  This  is  from  the  Elohist 
version,  which,  with  the  Jchovist,  may  be  found  in  Lenormant's  work. 
The  ordinary  version  was  drawn  from  the  two. 

6  Architecture,  p.  219,  2d  ed.    By  Joseph  Swift.    London,  1860. 

'  It  is  well  to  state  that  the  astrologer  was  the  forerunner  of  the  as- 
tronomer. In  his  interesting  book  on  The  Astronomy  of  the  Ancients, 
Sir  J.  Cornwall  Lewes  says  :  "  The  word  a(Trpo?j)-yo^  signifies  an  astrono- 
mer in  the  Greek  writers.  The  word  astrologus  has  the  same  sense  in 
the  earlier  Latin  writers.  In  later  times  the  distincti<in  which  now  obtains 
between  the  worils  astrology  and  astronomy  was  introduced"  (p.  292). 


Medical  Talismans.  131 

brought  from  the  Eiist  to  Greece  ^  by  the  Chaldeans,  of 
whom  Berosus,  the  historian,  "the  first  of  them," 
settled  at  Cos  and  opened  a  school  there.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  stated  in  Ptolemy's  remarkable  book^ 
that  medical  astrology  originated  in  Egypt. 

Hippocrates,  who  lived  a  century  or  so  before  Bero- 
sus, had  certainly  a  knowledge  of  astrology.  Galen 
wrote  a  book  on  it,  and,  like  Hippocrates,  gives  special 
prominence  to  the  influence  of  the  moon,  dwelling  par- 
ticularly on  its  production  of  critical  changes  in  dis- 
eases. Many  another  physician  thought  it  necessary  to 
master  it,^  including  Chaucer's  "  Doctor  of  Physick," 
who  was  "  grounded  in  astronomic."* 

From  the  fact  that  astrology  and  religion  were  closely 
connected,  it  almost  necessarily  followed  that  medical 
talismans  possessed  more  or  less  of  a  religious  signifi- 
cance. 

Among  the  talismanic  gems  pictured  in  De  Wilde's 
book^  is  one  which  has  on  one  side  the  Greek  letters 
IAH,  signifying  the  Creator  of  the  world,  or  Jehovah; 
and  on  the  other  a  representation  of  an  extremely  erotic 
and  rather  misshapen  lion  rampant.  This,  worn  in  a 
ring,  was  said  to  prevent  renal  and  other  diseases.  De 
Wilde  observes,  in  accordance  with  a  belief  of  ancient 
date,  that  in  this  figure  one  has  health  symbolized.  Sa3^s 
he  :  "Xeo  erectus  verum  signwm  sanitatis  protendity 

What  has  just  been  said  leads  me  to  remark  that  the 
phalluSy  which  was  a  common  form  of  the  genius  loci,  or 

*  The  Greeks  generally  gave  Atlas  the  credit  of  introducing  it.  See 
Cory's  Ancient  Fragments,  p.  82.    Hodges'  edition. 

2  Tetrahiblos,  i,  2. 

*  In  "A  Plea  for  Urania,"  issued  in  1854,  it  is  said  that  "less  than  two 
hundred  years  ago  an  individual  who  entered  upon  the  profession  of 
doctor  of  medicine,  either  in  England  or  any  of  the  European  countries, 
was  obliged  to  pass  an  astrological  examination"  (p.  246). 

*  Canterbury  Tales.  '  Gemmae  Selectae.    Amsterdam,  1703. 


132  Medical  Symbolism. 

Agatliodsemon,  wfis  widely  believed  to  have  great  power 
to  protect  against  liarm.  In  it  was  a  sovereign  prevent- 
ive of  malign  fascination,  or  the  influence  of  the  evil 
eye.  The  Roman  god,  Fascinus,^  had  it  as  his  chief 
symbol.  It  is  well  known  that  this  charm  was  sometimes 
placed  on  houses^  in  Pompeii,  with  the  inscription,  hie 
habitat  felicitas.  Aubrey  says  :  "  In  the  digging  of  the 
ruins  and  foundations  of  London,  after  the  great  con- 
flagration, there  were  found  several  little  Priapusses  of 
copper,  about  an  inch  long,  w"**  the  Romans  did  weare 
about  their  necks. "^ 

In  regard  to  the  lAli,  JAli,  or  JAO,  a  variation  of 


Fig.  19.— The  Divine  Name.    (As  seen  on  a  talismanic  gem,  copied 
from  De  Wilde's  book.) 

J  AH,*  tlie  name  of  the  Deity,  the  demiurge,  the  Sabaoth 
of  the  Phoenicians  and  others,  I  may  say  that  it  was 
regarded  as  possessing  in  itself  irresistible  talismanic 
power.  Fort  remarks  that  "  as  a  talisman  of  medical 
properties  it  was  carried  about  the  person  in  tubes,  or, 
more  generally,  on  parchment.'"^     Let  me  add  that  tlie 

*  Fascinum  and  penis  are  Latin  synonyms. 

*  This  is  still  done  in  parts  of  China  and  elsewhere  in  the  East. 

="  Remaines  of  Gentilisme  and  Judaisnie,  p.  32.   liondon,  1880.  Repub- 
lication by  the  B'olk-lore  Hociety.     First  issued  168(>-'87. 

*  See  Psalms,  Ixviii,  4,  and  Ixxxix,  8. 

*  Medical  Economy  during  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  92. 


Medical  Talismans.  133 

Tetragrammaton — that  is,  J  H  Y  H,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
rendered,  Jeliovali — was  the  same  thing  as  the  lAll. 
Mucli  could  be  said  about  it,  as  those  familiar  with 
Masonic  legends  and  occult  literature  are  aware.  Lenor- 
mant  states,  of  the  wide  belief  in  the  power  of  the  hidden 
"name  of  the  Lord,"  that  "  we  now  see  clearly  that  it 
came  from  Chaldea."^  Elsewhere,  reference  is  made  to 
the  potent  word  which  Hea  bore  in  his  heart. 

In  this  connection  I  may  say  a  word  on  the  "  tri- 
literal  monosyllable "  of  the  Brahmin  and  Buddhist, 
AUM,  to  which  still,  as  in  the  past,  great  potency  is 
attached.  Being  a  symbol  of  the  Supreme,  it  is  charac- 
terized as  "  that  which  passes  not  away."  Dr.  Birdvvood 
remarks  that  it  is  "  the  identical  formula  of  every  Hindu 


^^ 


Fig.  20.~Fobms  of  the  Pkescription  Symbol. 

god.  The  letter  A  is  the  vija-mantra  of  the  male 
Buddha,  the  generative  power ;  U,  the  ditto  of  the  female 
dharma  (law),  the  type  of  productive  power;  and  M, 
the  sanga  (congregation)  or  union  of  the  essences  of 
both."2 

The  symbol  placed  at  the  head  of  medical  prescrip- 
tions, and  which  is  usually  believed  to  stand  for  recipe^ 
may  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  obsolete  talisman.  The 
original  form  of  it  appears  to  have  been  a  figure  like  a 
Z,  with  the  lower  horizontal  part  crossed  with  a  sceptre- 
shaped  line.  This,  or  a  modification  of  it,  has  been  from 
time  immemorial  the  symbol  of  the  planet  Jupiter. 
Hence  the  reason,  it  has  been  asserted,  for  placing  it  at 
the  head   of  prescriptions;    for  the  great  planet,   the 

»  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  43.  ^  Indian  Arts,  p.  104. 


134  Medical  Symbolism. 

bearer  of  the  name  of  the  father  of  life,  was  believed  in 
other  da^'S  to  have  a  favorable  influence  over  diseases. 
And  here  I  may  observe  that  in  another  cliapter  I  have 
spoken  of  the  interesting  fact  that  Marduk^  of  the 
Babylono-Assyrians  stood  for  Jupiter,  and  that  in  him 
was  assimilated  the  benignant  mediator  and  healer  of 
the  Accadio-Sumerians,  Silik-mulu-khi. 

The  symbol  is  generally  described  as  being  simply 
the  initial  letter  of  Zeus,  the  Greek  name  of  Jupiter. 
But  this  leaves  part  of  it  out  of  account,  a  part  which 
might  be  taken  to  be  a  sceptre,  an  object  which,  accom- 
panied by  a  serpent,  as  the  symbol  of  life,  was  prominent 
in  representations  of  Jupiter.  But  one  might  with  some 
reason  regard  it  as  made  up  of  the  initial  and  terminal 
letters  of  Zad^klel,  or  Zadakiel,the  angel  and  the  spirit 
of  the  great  planet,  according  to  astrologers  and  others. 
And  again,  by  taking  it  to  be  composed  of  an  R  and  an 
1,  one  might  hold  it  to  be  derived  from  tlie  name  of 
Raphael,  the  angel  of  the  sun.  But,  as  already  stated, 
it  is  probable  that  the  body  of  the  original  figure  was 
not  an  R.  I  may  add  that  Mr.  Tayloi  says  that  this 
ideogram  "  resolves  itself  into  an  arm  grasping  a  thunder- 
bolt." 

If  the  prescription-mark  be  a  thing  of  astrological 
origin,  it  is  a  remnant  of  an  extensive  body  of  fnctsand 
theories,  long  highly  prized.  Shakspere  makes  Ki77g 
Lear,  in  an  interesting  passage,  characterize  the  refer- 
ence of  man's  destiny  "  to  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the 
stars,"  as  "  the  excellent  foppery  of  the  world  ;"^  but  no 
doubt  innumerable  hosts  of  believers  in  the  system  were 
thoroughly  sincere.  From  the  days  when  the  Accadians 
became    distinguished   for    their   observations    of    the 

•  The  star  of  Babylon  is  frequently  spoken  of  in  the  Inscriptions. 
The  star  of  Marduk  is  the  same.    It  is  Dilgan,  or  Jupiter. 
»  Act  I,  Scene  2. 


Medical  Talismans.  135 

heavens,  down  to  very  recent  times,  medical  astrology 
occupied  a  position  in  popular  thought  and  esteem  which 
almost  exceeds  the  power  of  credence  of  the  modern 
scientific  phj^sician.  Not  onl}^  in  administering  medi- 
cines, but  in  gathering  medicinal  herbs,  the  position  of 
the  planets  had  to  be  considered ;  for  it  was  believed 
that  the  herbs  got  their  virtues  from  them.  Without  the 
benign  influence  of  the"  host  of  heaven,"  no  good  could 
be  expected  from  the  physician,  or  his  remedies. 

The  belief  in  the  power  of  the  different  constellations 
of  the  zodiac  over  special  parts  of  the  body  and  their 
diseases  is  still  indicated  \)y  the  curious  figure  often 
seen  in  almanacs. 

Abraxas-stones  are  largely  medical  in  character — 
medical  talismans.  ^  Much  might  be  said  of  them.  Fort 
remarks  :  "  These  gems,  endowed  with  omnipotent  cura- 
tive and  talismanic  power,  quickl}"  acquired  a  celebrity 
undiminished  for  ages,  and  whose  possible  interpretation 
even  yet  attracts  erudite  attention. "^ 

Each  of  these  remarkable  objectsconsistedof  a  piece 
of  glass,  paste,  or  other  mineral  substance,  occasionally 
a  metallic  one,  on  which  was  usualh^  some  figure,  often  a 
serpent,  or  inscription ,  together  with  the  word  "  abraxas," 
which  constituted  their  distinctive  feature. 

The  Greek  letters  of  the  mystical  word,  ''  abraxas," 
equaled  in  numerical  value  365,^  the  number  of  da^^s  in 
the  j^ear.  After  speaking  of  the  serpent  of  evil  on  one, 
Sharpe  says  :  "  Underneath  it  is  written  the  magical 
word  Abrasa,  hurt  me  not^  an  Eg^'ptian  word,  which  the 

*  Abkacadabra  is  not  the  same  as  abraxas,  but  may  have  been 
derived  from  it.  In  the  third  century,  and  later,  it  was  regarded  as  a  capital 
remedy  for  malarial  fevers. 

2  Medical  Economy  during  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  94. 

3  The  letter  Alpha  =  1,  Beta  =  2,  Rho  =  100 ;  Alpha  =  1,  Xi  =  60  ; 
Alpha  =  1,  and  Sigma  =  200. 


136  Medical  Symbolism, 

Greeks  made  use  of,  as  believing  tliat  the  evil  spirits 
were  better  acquainted  with  the  Egyptian  language  than 
with  the  Greek."^  Not  a  few,  however,  believe  that  the 
word  is  not  such  at  all. 

The  abraxas-stones  are  believed  to  have  originated 
with  the  Basilidian  Gnostics,  a  sect  which  Basilides,  a 


Fig.  21.— Abkaxas-STONE.     (From  De  Wilde.) 

Syrian  by  birth,  who  lived  under  Trajan  and  his  suc- 
cessor, in  the  latter  half  of  the  first  century,  was  instru- 
mental in  originating.  Whether  they  were  intended  at 
first  to  be  simply  a  means  of  recognition  is  an  undecided 
question.  Those  given  to  magic  adopted  them  largely. 
The  opinion  has  been  expressed  that  doubtless  the 
greater  part  of  the  stones  were  made  in  the  middle  ages.^ 

»  Egyptian  Mythology,  p.  93.  '  (.'hambers'  Encyclopaedia. 


CHAPTER  XYI. 

MEDICAL   AMULETS. 

Any  object  believed  to  be  possessed  of  a  mysterious 
power  of  warding  off  or  removing  evil  of  &,ny  kind  may 
be  regarded  as  an  amulet.  A  medical  amulet  is  one 
capable  of  warding  off  or  of  removing  a  disease  or 
diseases.  The  prevention  of  disease,  or,  what  is  much 
the  same  thing,  the  preservation  of  health,  is  the  use  to 
"which  it  has  been  chiefly  put.  This  is  quite  as  true  of 
its  use  to-day  as  formerly. 

In  speaking  of  medical  amulets  one  has  no  reason 
to  use  only  the  past  tense.  They  are  still  much  used, 
as  the  reader  of  Brande,  or  of  the  publications  of  the 
Folk-Lore  Society,  or  of  Notes  and  Queries,  well  knows. 
Nor  are  the  patrons  of  them  of  the  illiterate  class  only. 
Every  physician  has,  doubtless,  met  with  instances  of 
their  use  by  persons  of  intelligence.  Here  is  a  clerg}'- 
man  who  carries  a  chestnut  in  his  pocket  to  keep  off 
rheumatism  ;  and  there  is  an  attorn ey-at-law  who  keeps 
a  stolen  potato  about  him  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
ancient  times,  however,  their  use  was  extremely  common, 
all  but  universal. 

Of  the  practical  value  of  amulets  I  may  sa}^,  with- 
out hesitancy,  that  it  is  very  great.  Of  course  it  would 
be  irrational  to  hold  that  they  act,  to  any  extent,  other- 
wise than  through  impressions  made  by  them  on  the 
mind.  Such  impressions  may  undoubtedly  be  powerful 
for  good.  That  this  is  the  case  few  competent  to  form 
an  opinion  on  the  subject  will  question.  The  intelligent 
reader  of  history,  as  well  as  the  scientific  ps3^chologist 

^'*  (137) 


138  Medical  Symbolism. 

and  physician,  has  abundant  reason  to  know  that  it  is 
true.  I  repeat  wliat  I  have  deliberately  said  elsewhere : 
"Amulets  do  serve,  in  a  measure,  to  prevent  disease. 
Anything  which  inspires  confidence  and  hope  is  sanative 
in  its  effects.     Faith  is  a  powerful  liealer."^ 

A  gem  with  a  symbol  of  one  kind  or  another  en- 
graved on  it  was,  from  an  early  period,  an  ordinary 
medical  amulet.  A  common  symbol  was  a  figure  of 
Hygeia ;  and  one  of  Serapis  was  long  quite  as  common. 
The  name  of  Raphael  (literally  healer  of  God),  the 
patron  angel  of  the  early  Christians,  was  often  shown 
on  both  amulets  and  talismans.  This  angel  had  a 
reputation  as  a  healer, ^  as  the  reader  familiar  with 
"  Tobias  "  is  aware.  In  that  historical  book,  it  is  said 
that  when  Tobias  and  Sara  were  aflflicted  "  the  holy 
angel  of  the  Lord,  Raphael,  was  sent  to  heal  them 
both."^  Tobias  was  told  by  him  that  if  he  put  a  little 
piece  of  a  fish's  heart  upon  coals  the  smoke  thereof 
would  drive  awa^'  all  kinds  of  devils,  either  from  man 
or  woman,  and  that  the}^  would  not  return.^ 

A  serpent  was  a  very  familiar  object  on  gems  used 
as  amulets.  The  later  Egyptians,  who  were  great 
believers  in  such  things,  were  very  partial  to  it.  Among 
the  objects  found  by  General  Di  Cesnola,  in  Cypress, 
was  a  scarabseoid  of  banded  agate,  on  which  are  en- 
graved two  asps  with  a  cartouche  between,  inscribed 
wnth  the  word  f^f$.  In  reference  to  this  word  he  sa^'s: 
"It  can  be  no  other  than  e;^f$,  the  old  form  o^  e^^ihya, 

»  The  Care  and  Culture  of  Children.    Philadelphia,  1880. 

^  It  is  worth  while  to  observe  that  Raphael  was,  according  to  the 
Cabbala,  the  angel  of  the  sun.  *  Tobias,  iii,  25. 

*  Nearly  all  savage  and  semi-civilized  peoples  have  viewed  the  heart 
as  a  very  mysterious  organ.  Not  a  few  have  regarded  it  as  the  epitome  or 
soul  of  the  individual.  In  sacrifice  it  has  played  an  important  r61e.  See 
Albert  Reville's  work  on  The  Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  p.  43. 
New  York,  1884. 


Medical  Amulets.  139 

and  may  possibl}'-  be  a  proper  name  after  the  analogy  of 
Draco,  not  nncommon  in  Greece ;  and  Echidna,  whose 
amour  with  Hercules  Herodotus  relates.  Or,  if  taken 
in  its  primary  sense  the  word  may  constitute  an  amulet 
against  the  asps,  still  so  plentiful  in  Cj^prus,  and  to  be 
of  the  nature  of  those  prophylactic  rings  against  snake- 
bites alluded  to  b}^  Aristophanes.^  Arab  amulets,  at  the 
present  day,  bear  the  figure  of  the  thing  against  which 
they  exert  their  virtue,  and  all  Oriental  practices  in  this 
line  come  down  from  immemorial  antiquity. "^ 

I  may  remark  that  the  use  of  images  of  things  feared 
to  save  from  them  has,  indeed,  been  extensively  prac- 
ticed. The  cause  and  the  effect,  in  many  afflictions, 
might  be  so  used.  The  golden  emerods  and  mice, 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible,  are  instances.^  The  same  idea 
may  have  had  something  to  do  with  the  use  of  the 
brazen  serpent  of  Moses.  The  Chaldeans,  in  resorting 
to  this  peculiar  plan  of  dealing  with  their  evil  spirits, 
represented  them,  sa3^s  Lenormant,  "  under  such  hideous 
forms  that  the}^  believed  that  it  was  sufficient  for  them 
to  be  shown  their  own  imao-e  to  cause  them  to  flee 
away  alarmed."*  And  this  leads  me  to  sa}"  that  great 
medical  virtues  have  been  held  to  spring  from  things 
repulsive.  Thus,  water  drank  from  the  skull  of  a 
suicide  has  received  credit  for  the  cure  of  many  a  case 
of  epilepsy.  Tasting  the  blood  of  a  murderer  has  been 
resorted  to  successfully  in  cases  of  the  same  disease. 

A  word  in  this  connection  about  adder-stones  may 
not  be  amiss.  These  objects  have  long  been  regarded 
by  many  as  charms  or  amulets  of  great  power.  They 
are  simply  the  whorls  or  rude  fly-wheels  put  on  spindles 

'■  There  OS  the  riBg  of  the  Zend  Avesta  and  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
about  it  also. 

*  Cyprus,  p.  3M.    London,  1877.  '  1  Sam.,  vi,  4  et  seq. 

*  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  50. 


140  Medical  Symholism. 

of  spinning-wheels.  Dr.  A.  Mitchell  discusses  them  at 
length  in  his  interesting  archaeological  work.^ 

Under  the  head  of  medical  amulets  are  to  be  classed 
many  things,  such  as  blessed  objects  and  relics  of 
various  kinds.  The  extent  to  which  these  were  used, 
century  after  century,  down  even  to  our  own  day,  is 
surprising.  The  interested  reader  may  advantageously 
turn  to  Fort's  learned  work.^  The  sprinkling  of  "  holy 
water  "^  over  patients  by  pious  Catholics  is  familiar  to 
every  physician.  1  have  seen  a  few  drops  of  water  from 
Lourdes  given  by  a  priest  to  his  mother,  sinking  from 
lung  disease.  A  few  weeks  ago  I  saw  a  cup  of  water  in 
which  a  little  earth  from  Knock,  in  the  south  of 
Ireland,  was  mixed,  given  with  great  confidence  in  its 
power  for  good,  in  a  case  of  difficult  labor.  In  the 
"  Zend  Avesta  "  wonderful  virtue  is  ascribed  to  gomez  ;'^ 
and  the  same  thing  is  equall}^  lauded  in  the  sacred  books 
of  the  Hindus.  What  strange  beliefs  mortals  may 
have ! 

Certain  numerals  have  had  remarkable  properties 
accorded  them  by  philosophical  and  other  speculators. 
Seven  has  occupied  a  prominent  position.  The  primi- 
tive Chaldeans,  in  their  stud}^  of  tlie  heavens,  became 
acquainted  with  seven  planets,  including  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  their  week  consisted  of  seven  da3^s.  With  the 
Egyptians  and  others  the  same  was  the  case.  P3^tha- 
goras  saw  in  this  number  the  three  of  the  triangle  and 
the  four  of  the  square, — the  two  perfect  figures.  It  was 
considered  sacred  to  Helios  and  also  Apollo.  The 
Hebrew  sheha  means  seven,  and  was  the  symbol  of  a 

*  The  Past  in  the  Present,  p.  19  et  seq.    1881. 

'  Medical  Economy  during  the  Middle  Ages.    New  York,  1883. 
"  A  practice  long  in  use.    See  p.  110. 

*  Urine  of  oxen.  The  supposed  virtue  sprang  from  certain  mytho- 
logical notions. 


Medical  Amulets.  141 

deity  ^  before  it  came  to  signify  an  oath.  As  a  charm  or 
amulet,  the  number  was  believed  to  be  possessed  of 
great  potency.  Health  was  assured  by  carrying  it 
about  the  person  on  a  gem  or  the  like.  Ebers  illustrates 
this  superstition  in  one  of  his  splendid  historical  novels  ; 
he  makes  Boges,  m  giving  a  ring  to  Croesus,  speak 
thus ; — 

*'  Take  this  ring.  It  has  never  left  my  finger  since 
I  quitted  Egypt,  and  it  has  a  significance  far  beyond  its 
outward  worth.  Pythagoras,  the  noblest  of  the  Greeks, 
gave  it  to  my  mother  when  he  was  tarrjing  in  Egypt  to 
learn  the  wisdom  of  our  priests,  and  it  was  her  parting 
gift  to  me.  The  number  seven  is  engraved  upon  the 
simple  stone.  This  indivisible  number  represents  per- 
fect health,  both  to  soul  and  body,  for  health  is  likewise 
one  and  indivisible.  The  sickness  of  one  member  is  the 
sickness  of  all ;  one  evil  thought  allowed  to  take  up  its 
abode  within  our  heart  destroys  the  entire  harmony  of 
the  soul.  When  you  see  this  seven,  therefore,  let  it 
recall  my  heart's  wish  that  you  may  ever  enjoy  undis- 
turbed bodily  health  and  long  retain  that  loving  gen- 
tleness which  has  made  you  the  most  virtuous  and, 
therefore,  the  healthiest  of  men."^ 

As  already  intimated,  the  Chaldeans  attributed 
special  virtues  to  certain  numbers,  of  which  seven  would 
seem  to  have  been  the  most  highly  esteemed.  Unfortu- 
natel}?^,  none  of  their  numerical  formulae  have  as  yet  been 
discovered.  The  ''  mamit  "  or  "  number "  has  been 
referred  to  before.  Lenormant  remarks  :  "  More  powerful 
than  the  incantations  were  conjurations  wrought  by  the 
power  of  numbers.     In  this   way  the   supreme  secret 

*  It  was  probably  connected  with  the  ^od  Sbat  and  the  Egyptian  Seb 
or  Cronus,  the  father  of  Osiris.  See  Transactions  of  the  Victoria  Insti- 
tute, vol.  xvi,  pp.  136  and  160.    London,  1883. 

«  The  Princess,  vol.  i,  p.  210. 


142  Medical  Symbolism. 

■which  Hea  tuugbt  to  his  son,  Silik-mulu-khi,  wlien  he 
consulted  him  iii  his  distress,  was  always  called  '  the 
number.'  "^ 

A  remnant  of  the  old  belief  in  the  relation  of  seven 
to  health  is  the  wide-spread  superstitious  notion  that  the 
seventh  son  of  the  seventh  son  is  possessed  of  special 
healing  powers.  Curiously  enough,  I  had  a  visit  from 
such  a  person,  just  before  writing  this  ;  and  he  as  firmly 
believes  that  he  can  cure  "  the  evil  "  and  other  ills  with 
certainty  as  any  king  that  ever  exercised  the  ro\  al  gift. 

The  color  red  has  long  served  the  purpose  of  an 
amulet.  To  this  day  a  red  string  is  occasionally  seen 
around  the  necks  of  children  to  protect  them  against 
scarlet  fever  and  other  pestilential  diseases ;  and  the 
belief  in  the  special  virtue  of  red  flannel  is  almost  nni- 
versal.  Says  Aubrey  :  "  Johannes  Medicus,  who  lived 
and  wrote  in  the  time  of  Edward  II,  and  was  Phj^sition  to 
that  king,  gives  an  account  of  his  curing  the  prince  of 
ye  small-pox,  a  disease  but  then  lately  known  in  England, 
by  ordering  his  bed,  his  room,  and  his  attendants  to  be 
all  in  scarlet,  and  imputes  3'e  cure  in  great  measure  to 
the  virtue  of  ye  colour. "^  The  same  was  done  in  the 
case  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I,  in  1765. 

Of  red  it  is  certainl}'  true  that  it  is  a  warm  color ; 
and  the  impression  of  it  on  the  mind  is  stimulating. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  different  colors  exert 
various  influences  over  living  forms,  including  man. 

But,  although  medicnl  virtues  have  been  as<)ribed  to 
red,  it  has  been  looked  on  as  anything  but  good.  Sajs 
Ebers  :  "  In  the  '  Papyrus-Ebers'  all  injurious  and  evil 
things  are  called  rod."^  Tlie  scorching  sands  of  the 
desert,  likel3%gave  the  Egyptian  his  dislike  to  the  color. 

»  Chaldean  Magic,  p.  41, 

2  llemaines  of  Gentilisine  and  Judaisme,  p.  49.        *  Uarda,  p.  118. 


Medical  Amulets.  143 

In  the  Hindu  book  of  the  law,^  a  man  is  forbidden  to 
marry  a  girl  with  reddish  hair,  but  why  is  not  stated. 
Satan  is  usually  given  a  suit  of  fiery  hue. 

The  Anilh  was  a  symbol  of  the  Egyptians  signifjing 
life.  It  received  the  Latin  name  of  crux  ansata,  or 
handled  cross,  from  its  shape.  Sometimes  it  is  spoken 
of  as  the  key  of  life.  Each  of  the  great  divinities  carries 
one.  "  We  do  not  know,"  says  Kenrick, "  the  reason  why 
life  was  represented  by  the  crux  ansata.'^''^  It  seems, 
however,  that  the  object  was  at  first  simply  a  crossed 
pole,  used  to  measure  the  degree  of  rise  in  the  waters  of 
the  Nile  during  the  period  of  flood,  an  annual  occurrence 
of  vital  importance  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  historic  region.  From  this  origi- 
nated, according  to  Pluche  and  others, 
the  meaning  of  life  attached  to  it.  In 
the  hand  of  Thoth,  a  serpent  was  some- 
times twined  around  it.     From    it  has 

spruno^,   accordino;    to    Gerald    Massey, 
^        ^'  °  T        ,  i       Fig.  22.— Ankh, 

many  modern  symbols  and  words.     "  It         ob  crux  ax- 

,,  .,,,.•,  1  SATA. 

IS  extant,    says  he,  "m  the  great  seals 
of  England,  in   a  reversed  position,  as   the   token  of 
power  and  authority  ;"^  and  he  ventures  to  affirm  that 
"to  be  anxious  is  to  be  very  much  alive."* 

Regarded  as  a  Tau  or  T^  with  a  link  attached,  it  was 
often  interpreted  as  Tj'phon  chained.  As  such  it  was 
customary  to  suspend  it  as  an  amulet  from  the  necks  of 
children  and  sick  people  ;  and  it  was  connected  with  the 

*  Institute  of  Menu,  p.  154.  ^  Ancient  Egypt,  vol.  i,  p.  254. 

=  A  Book  of  Beginnings.    London.  1881.  *  jbicl,  p.  101. 

'  T  served  some  as  a  symbol  of  the  generative  power.  John  Davenport 
says  that  it  was  "used  indiscrim:nately  with  the  Phallus  ;  it  was,  in  fact,  the 
Pliallus."  Aphrodisiacs  and  Anti-Aphrodisiacs,  p.  13.  London,  1869. 
PriA'ately  printed.  Payne  Knight  states  that  the  male  organs  represented 
as  "the  cross,  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T.  sometimes  served  as  the  emblem 
of  creation  and  generation."    Worship  of  Priapus,  p.  48. 


144  Medical  Symbolism. 

wrappings  of  mummies.  M.  Pluche,  wlio  has  gone  at 
length  into  this  interesting  subject,  says  :  "Tliis  custom 
of  bridling  the  powers  of  the  enemy,  and  of  hanging  a 
captive  Tj^phon  about  the  necks  of  children,  of  sick 
persons,  and  of  the  dead,  appeared  so  beneficial  and  so 
important  that  it  was  adopted  by  other  nations.  The 
children  and  the  sick  most  commonly  wore  a  ticket, 
whereon  was  a  T,  which  they  looked  upon  as  a  powerful 
preventive.  In  process  of  time,  other  characters  were 
substituted  in  the  room  of  the  letter  T,  which  was  at  first 
engraved  on  this  ticket,  but  of  wliich  the  other  nations 
understood  neither  the  meaning  nor  intention.  They 
often  put  a  serpent  on  it,  an  Harpoc rates,  or  the  object 
of  the  devotions  in  vogue ;  na^^,  sometimes  ridiculous 
figures,  or  even  some  that  were  of 
the  utmost  indecency.  But  the  name 
of  amulet  that  was  given  to  the 
^^HiKRo?^YPHics^^  ticket,  and  which  signifies  the  re- 
moval of  evil,  most  naturally  repre- 
sents the  intention  of  the  Egyptians,  from  whom  this 
practice  came."^ 

A  SCEPTRE  (Tern),  which,  alone,  may  signify  strong, 
in  connection  with  the  ankh  stands  for  strong  life,  or 
health.  This  combination  is  seen  on  one  of  the  faces 
of  the  obelisk  now  in  London. 

Touch-pieces,  or  golden  eagles,  were  special  coins 
first  issued  by  King  Henry  VII  to  persons  "  touched 
for  the  evil."  One  side  of  the  piece  bore  an  angel 
standing  on  a  dragon,  with  the  inscription.  Soli  Deo 
gloria^  and  the  other  a  ship  in  full  sail.  Some  had  other 
designs.  A  hand  extending  from  above  was  often  given, 
— an  old  symbol  of  healing,  being  in  use  in  Egjqot,  and 
generally  having  in  connection  with  it  a  serpent,  or  a 
*  History  of  the  Heavens,  vol.  i,  p.  259. 


fl 


Medical  Amulets.  145 

figure  of  Serapis.i  The  liaud  of  the  Lord  so  frequently 
spoken  of  in  the  Bible  may  have  suggested  it.  Speci- 
mens of  those  issued  hy  Charles  II  and  James  II  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  collection  of  coins  now  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Memorial 
Hall,  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia.  There  are  cuts  of 
several  in  Pettigrew's  work.^ 

The  touch-pieces  were  carefully  preserved  and  used 
as  amulets. 

The  practice  of  touching  for  the  evil  by  English 
sovereigns,  from  Edward  the  Conqueror  down  to  Queen 
Anne,  did  not  originate  with  them.  Tacitus  ^  gives  an 
interestino;  account  of  the  cure  of  a  case  of  blindness 
and  of  one  of  paralysis,  in  the  same  way,  by  Yespasian. 
Every  Bible-reader  knows  that  it  was  resorted  to  in 
Palestine.  But  it  was  in  vogue  in  Greece  three  centuries 
before  our  era.  In  his  "  Life  of  Pyrrhus,"  Plutarch 
says :  "  It  was  believed  that  he  cured  the  swelling  of 
the  spleen  by  sacrificing  a  white  cock,  and  with  his  right 
foot  gently  pressing  the  part  affected,  the  patients  Ij'ing 
upon  their  backs  for  the  purpose.  There  was  no  person, 
however  poor  or  mean,  to  whom  this  relief,  if  requested, 
was  refused.  He  received  no  reward  except  the  cock 
for  sacrifice,  and  this  present  was  very  agreeable  to 
him." 

The  MEDiciNK-BAG  of  the  North  American  Indians 
has  been  almost  universally  regarded  by  that  race  as  of 
wonderful  virtue  in  warding  off  harmful  influences  of 
all  kinds.  It  has  served  them  as  a  preventive,  and  also, 
like  Prince  Ahmed's  apple,  as  a  cure  for  every  disease. 
Catlin  says  he  found  that  "  every  [male]  Indian,  in  his 

•  See  Occult  Sciences,  p.  222.  A  volume  of  the  Eneyclopasdia  Metro- 
politan a.    London,  1855. 

2  Superstitions  Connected  with  Medicine  and  Surgery.  London,  1843. 

3  Historiaum,  iv,  81. 

7    G 


146 


Medical  Symbolism. 


primitive  state,  carries  his  medicine-bag  in  some  form  or 
other,  to  which  he  pays  the  greatest  homage  and  to 
which  he  looks  for  safety  and  protection  through  life."^ 
The  same  writer,  who,  I  may  remark,  had  a  very  wide 
acquaintance  among  Indians,  pronounces  it  to  be  "  the 
ke}^  to  Indian  life  and  Indian  character. "^ 

The  contents  of  this  mysterious  bag,  this  "  bag  of 
wonders,"  are  preserved  a  secret,  one  which  none  wishes 
to  discover.  These  consist  of  a  medicinal  herb,  or  the 
like,  with  some  packing-material,  such 
as  dried  grass  or  moss. 

The  medicine-bag  is  formed  from  the 
skin  of  a  human  being  or  some  reptile, 
bird,  or  other  creature.  The  suggestion 
of  the  substance  to  be  used  was  left  to 
a  dream,  inspired  b}^  the  "  great  spirit," 
and  experienced  during  the  fast  indulged 
in  about  puberty,  the  time  when  the 
Indian  "makes  his  medicine;"  that  is, 
learns  what  animal  is  to  be  his  guar- 
dian, as  it  were.  Various  ornaments  are 
attached  to  it. 

The  medicine-bag  is  attached  to  the 

^'""ciN^^rG^"''  belt  or  carried  in  the  hand.     No  other 

possession  could  be  compared  with  it  in 

value,  and  money  could  not  buy  one.     It  is  buried  with 

its  owner. 

As  already  hinted,  the  medicine-bag  is  not  considered 
of  medical  import  only ;  it  is  believed  to  have  a  power 
over  all  injurious  influences.  By  "  medicine  "  the  In- 
dian has  reference  to  everything  he  cannot  understand. 
Catlin  and  others  are  doubtless  right  in  their  opinion 
that  it  came  from  the  French  word  for  doctor,  medecin. 
*■  North  American  Indians,  vol.  i,  p.  70.    Philadelphia,  1857.  "^  Ibid. 


Medical  Amulets.  147 

It  is  the  manito  or  manitou  of  the  Algoiikin,  the  oki  of 
the  Iroquois,  and  the  teotl  of  the  Aztec.  And,  curious 
to  observe,  these  words  also  mean  serpent. 

I  may  also  explain  here  that  the  "  medicine-man  "  is 
not  alone  the  phj^sician ;  he  deals  with  the  mysterious 
generall}'.  There  were  three  kinds  :  the  Jossakeeds,  or 
seers  or  prophets  ;  the  Medas,  or  medical  practitioners  ; 
and  the  Wabenos,  a  class  that  indulged  in  night  orgies. 

In  Miss  Emerson's  book  it  is  said  that  "  the  dress 
of  the  Medas  of  the  celebrated  Mandan  Indians,  whose 
tribe  is  now  extinct,  was  a  medley  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdom.  All  anomalies  in  nature  were  nsed 
as  of  great  medical  effect  in  the  construction  of  this 
professional  guard.  The  skin  of  the  j^ellow  bear  usu- 
all}^  formed  the  most  important  feature  of  the  dress,  and 
to  this  was  sometimes  attached  the  skins  of  snakes  and 
the  hoofs  of  deer,  goats,  and  antelopes."^  The  appear- 
ance of  such  a"  doctor  "  was  surely  sufficient  to  frighten 
awa}^  most  of  the  evil  spirits  which  were  the  source  of 
human  ills. 

1  Indian  Myths,  p.  230. 


CHAPTER   XYII. 

pharmacists'  symbols. 

The  art  of  the  pharmacist  is  old  ;  it  is  assuredly  of 
prehistoric  origin.  The  reader  of  Dioscorides  or  of 
Pliny  is  astonished  at  the  number  of  herbs  and  other 
things  used  as  medicines  and  the  complexness  of  many 
popular  prescriptions.  Referring  to  the  pharmacist,  it 
is  curiously  observed,  in  '*  Ecclesiasticus,"  that  "  of  his 
works  there  shall  be  no  end."^  In  other  days  than  ours 
there  was  evidently  a  morbid  taste  for  the  multiplication 
of  remedies  of  doubtful  worth, — a  deplorable  infirmity 
of  many  physicians. 

It  is  stated  by  Ebers,  in  his  "  Egyptian  Princess," 
that  each  of  the  Egyptian  temples  had  its  laboratory 
and  apothecar}^  There  is  a  list  of  two  hundred  drugs 
which  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Edfu.  But  just  when 
the  preparation  and  sale  of  medicines  became  a  special 
business  cannot  be  stated.  In  early  times  it  was  cus- 
tomar}'-  for  the  ph3^sician  to  compound  his  own  prescrip- 
tions, as  is  done  in  rural  places  3^et.  Mr.  Fort  remarks 
that  "  toward  the  conclusion  of  the  third  century  the 
first  indications  present  themselves  of  the  existence  of 
a  class  of  [Roman]  citizens  to  whose  vigilant  care  was 
confided  the  preparation  of  medicaments  ordered  by 
attendant  phj^sicians."^  The  same  writer  saj's  :  "  The 
storage  of  medicinal  supplies  seems  to  have  approxi- 
mated the  pharmacy  in  the  twelfth  centurj^,  although 
even  earlier  the  word  apothecary  appears  to  have  been 

*  Ecclesiasticus,  xxxviii,  7. 

'  Medical  Economy  during  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  27. 

(149) 


150  Medical  Symbolism. 

interchangeable  with  the  booth  where  assorted  wares 
were  offered  at  public  sale.''^  At  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century  the  Bishop  of  London  was  named  apothecarius^ 
or  pharmacist,  to  King  Henry, — a  fact  which  proves  that 
the  art  of  Bolus  was  then,  at  least,  highly  esteemed. 

Now,  although  the  establishment  of  the  pharmacist 
has  m^^steries  in  abundance  connected  with  it,  the  special 
symbols  pertaining  to  the  business  are  but  few.  The 
chief  and  most  characteristic  one  is  the  mortar  and 
PESTLE.  In  Larwood  and  Hotten's  interesting  book  it 
is  said  :  "  One  of  the  signs  originally  used  exclusively 
by  apothecaries  was  the  mortar  and  pestle,  their  well- 
known  implements  for  pounding  drugs. "^  In  an  attract- 
H  ive  form  and  generally  gilded,  it  is  to 

^^//  be  seen  at  nearly  all  pharmacies  in  this 

country.  Only  occasionally  is  it  pic- 
tured. I  know  an  instance  in  Phila- 
delphia where  Cupid  is  represented  in 
^^^NDPESTLEf^^  connection  with  it ;  but  this  is  as  absurd 
an  addition  as  the  negro  j^outh  who  is 
using  the  pestle  in  another.  An  eagle — the  national 
bird — is  sometimes  represented  hovering  over  it.  The 
pestle  used  for  grinding  corn  was  deified  by  the  Romans 
under  the  name  of  Pilumnus.  In  connection  with  the 
mortar  it  is  highly  spoken  of  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Hindus. 

The  skull  and  cross-bones  has  come  to  be  of  pharma- 
ceutical significance.  Placed  on  the  label  of  a  vial,  it 
implies  that  the  contents  are  poisonous,  and  should  be 
used  with  intelligence  and  care.  It  has  been  in  use  from 
an  early  date  as  an  emblem  of  death.  Formerly,  it  was 
often  placed  on  tombstones. 

*  Medical  Economy  during  the  Middle  Af!;es,  p.  307. 

=  History  of  Sign-Boards,  p.  341.    Second  edition.    London,  1866. 


Pharmacists^  Symbols.  151 

Bottles  or  vases,  colored  or  containing  colored 
liquids,  are  of  pharmaceutic  import.  The  question  of 
the  origin  of  their  use  as  signs  is  often  asked.  It  can- 
not be  definitely  answered.  Bat,  as  to  how  the  custom 
originated  one  may  confidently  say  that  it  arose  from 
the  common-sense  desire  of  the  dealer  in  medicinal 
wares  to  make  the  fact  obvious  to  the  passer-by.  The 
confectioner  does  essentially  the  same  thing,  and  so, 
indeed,  do  the  grocer  and  man}^  others. 

By  turning  to  Larwood  and  Hotten's  book  it  will 
Tbe  seen  that  a  golden  bottle  has  been  used  as  a  banker's 
and  a  goldsmith's  sign  ;  also,  that  bottles  of  various 
kinds  have  in  other  days,  as  now,  decorated  many  a 
tavern-front. 

Hence,  a  bottle  or  vase  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a 
symbol,  and  much  less  the  exclusive  S3^mbol  of  a  dealer 
in  medicines.  If  it  were  similar  in  every  instance,  and 
had  something  special  in  its  form  or  color,  or  both,  it 
mio;ht  be  so  reo:arded. 

As  it  is,  one  cannot  very  well  regard  it  in  any  other 
light  than  as  a  part  of  the  dealer's  ordinar}'^  stock. 
Still,  it  must  be  said  that  there  is  something  decidedly 
distinct  and  special  about  it,  as  seen  in  the  pharmacist's 
window. 

In  this  countr}^,  at  least,  the  shape  of  the  vase  or 
vases  (for  there  are  generally  three  or  four)  and  their 
color  are  not  subject  to  an}^  rule ;  and,  in  fact,  there  are 
a  few  stores  in  Philadelphia  in  which  there  are  none. 
The  favorite  colors  seem  to  be  light  green,  claret,  light 
blue,  and  amber. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  presence  of  special 
colored  liquids  in  show-bottles  does  not  date  back  much 
farther  than,  if  as  far  as,  1617, — the  time  when  the 
apothecaries  became  a  distinct  class  from  grocers,  in 


152  Medical  Symbolism. 

England.  Certainly,  some  of  the  beautiful  shades  of 
color  are  very  modern. 

Exhibitiiis:  bottles  containino-  actual  medicines  is 
doubtless  a  much  more  ancient  practice  than  that  of 
exhibiting  them  for  the  sake  of  their  own  showiness  or 
that  of  the  solutions  placed  therein.  That  has,  in  all 
probability,  been  customary  from  the  time  when  dealing 
in  druofs  besfan.     When  was  that  ? 

It  is  known  that  the  art  of  the  pharmacist  and  trad- 
ing in  drugs  were  practiced  at  an  early  period  in  Egypt. 
Tiius,  in  the  "  Papj^rus-Ebers,"  which  was  written  1600 
years  before  our  era,  we  learn  that  for  most  diseases 
remedies  were  prescribed,  drawn  from  all  three  king- 
doms of  nature,  and  in  some  instances  were  brought 
from  distant  lands.  Tlie  prescriptions,  I  may  add,  were 
compounded  according  to  exact  weights  and  measures. 
Two  recipes  for  pills  are  given  :  one  with  honey  for 
women,  and  one  without  it  for  men.  One  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  a  hair-dye,  ascribed  to  the  mother-in-law ^  of 
the  first  king  of  Egypt  is  given,  which  Ebers  states ^  to 
be  the  earliest  of  all  recipes  preserved  to  us,  the  date  of 
its  origin  beinoj  about  4000  B.C. 

I  could  give  many  Egyptian  and  other  ancient  refer- 
ences to  fancy  vessels  of  glass  and  other  materials  used 
in  the  pursuit  of  ministering  to  the  sick.  One  extremely 
interesting  direct  reference  to  the  use  of  medicinal  vases 
at  a  ver}^  early  date  has  recently  been  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  public.  I  refer  to  a  translation  of  an 
Assyrian  fragment  made  by  Mr.  J.  Halevy,  given  in 
"  The  Records  of  the  Past."^  It  is  so  interesting  from 
several  points  of  view  that  I  will  give  it  here  in  its 
entirety  : — 

»  Schesch.  *  Princess,  vol.  i,  p.  296. 

»  The  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  xi,  p.  159.    London,  1878. 


Pharmacista^  Symbols.  153 

**  For  the  eruptions  and  humors  which  afflict  the  body  : 
Fill  a  vase  which  has  held  drugs  with  water  from  an  inexhaustible 

well ; 
Put  in  it  a  shoot  of a reed,  some  date-sugar^  some  urine, 

some  bitter  hydromel 

Add  to  it  some ; 

Saturate  it  with  pure  water  [and] 

Pour  upon  it  the  water  of  the  [sick]  man. 

Cut  reeds  in  an  elevated  meadow; 

Beat  some  pure  date-sugar  with  some  pure  honey ; 

Add  some  sweet  oil  which  comes  from  the  mountain; 

Mix  them  together. 

Rub  [with  this  ointment]  the  body  of  the  [sick  man]." 

The  reference  to  the  "  art  of  the  apothecary  "  made 
in  the  Bible ^  has  been  regarded  as  "  the  first  recorded 
notice  upon  the  subject  of  medicine  and  pharmacy," — 
as,  for  example,  by  the  late  i^rofessor,  Dr.  George  B. 
Wood  ;2  but  here  we  have  explicit  evidence  that  farther 
back,  say  1000  years  before  the  time  of  Moses,  people 
were  in  the  habit  of  having  medicines  stored  in  vases 
of  a  set  kind,  and  that  the  Bab3'lonians  had  considerable 
pharmaceutical  knowledge,  as  well  as  that  their  medical 
practice  was  not  excluslA^ely  magical ;  or,  as  Mr.  Halevy 
puts  it,  "  it  proves  that  the  Babylonians  were  in  the 
possession  of  a  rational  medicine  as  well  as  a  magical 
one."^  He  further  remarks  that  it  is  "  the  only  known 
specimen  of  an  Assyro-Babylonian  prescription." 

*  Ex.,  XXX,  25-35.  In  the  revised  translation  apothecary  becomes 
perfumer. 

2  Introductory  Lectures  and  Addresses  on  Medical  Subjects,  p.  54. 
Philadelphia,  1859. 

3  Mr.  Sayce,  writing  in  1884,  states  that  "the  fragments  of  a  work  on 
medicine  closely  resembling  the  Egyptian  Papyrus-Ebers  have  recently 
been  found"  (at  Babylon).    Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,  p.  173. 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 

MISCELLANEOUS   MEDICAL   SYMBOLS. 

The  Barber's  and  Surgeon's  Pole. — The  peculiar 
pole  made  use  of  by  barbers  as  a  sign  seems  to  have 
been  medical  in  origin.  For  a  long  time  the  barber  per- 
formed all  the  duties  of  the  surgeon.  It  was  in  the  j^ear 
1461  that,  on  petition,  King  Edward  lY  granted  "  the 
freemen  of  the  Mj^stery  of  Barbers  of  the  city  of  London, 
using  the  mystery  or  faculty  of  surgery,"  "  the  mj'stery," 
which  constituted  the  beginning  of  the  present  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  of  England.^  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  (lt45)  that 
each  began  to  limit  his  functions. 

The  sign  is  generally  explained  thus :  The  pole 
represents  a  stick,  usually  held  in  his  hand  by  the  patient 
while  getting  bled,  and  the  red  and  white  spiral  stripes, 
blood  and  a  bandage,  respectively.  The  colors,  it  may 
be  observed,  are  not  alwa3'S  arranged  in  spiral  parallel 
stripes  ;  nor  are  the  colors  limited  to  red  and  white.  The 
use  of  blue  with,  or  even  without,  red  is  partly  allow- 
able, on  account  of  venous  blood  being  somewhat  bluish 
in  hue.  Mr.  Jeaffreson, indeed,  says  that  "  the  chirurgi- 
cal  pole,  properly  tricked  out,  ought  to  have  a  line  of 
blue  paint,  another  of  red,  and  a  third  of  white, "^  spirally 
arranged. 

On  the  top  of  the  pole  there  is  usually  placed,  in 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  European  countries,  a 
brass  basin,  with  a  semicircular  gap  in  one  side.     This 

1  Incorporated  in  the  year  1800.    Date  of  the'present  charter,  1843. 

2  A  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  i,  p.  7.    London,  1860. 

(155) 


156  Medical  Symbolism. 

vessel  is  used  by  the  barber  to  keep  the  clothes  of  his 
patrons  from  being  soiled.  With  a  gallipot,  instead  of 
the  basin,  one  has  tlie  real  pole  of  the  surgeon,  which  has 
been  extensively  used  as  a  sign.  Without  either,  it  is  in 
use  by  the  barbers  in  this  country.  Lord  Thurlow,  a 
member  of  tlie  House  of  Commons,  delivered  a  speech 
on  the  nth  of  Jul}?-,  1797,  in  opposition  to  the  Surgeons' 
Incorporation  Bill,  in  which  he  said  :  "  By  a  statute,  still 
in  force,  the  barbers  and  surgeons  were  each  to  use  a 
pole.  The  barbers  were  to  have  theirs  blue  and  white 
striped,  witli  no  appendage;  but  the  surgeons',  which 
was  the  same  in  other  respects,  was  likewise  to  have  a 
gallipot  and  a  red  flag,  to  denote  the  particular  nature 
of  tlieir  vocation." 

The  Color  Yellow. — It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
yellow  is  a  characteristically  medical  color.  A  flag  of 
this  color  is  in  use  at  lazarettos,  and  it  is  often  placed 
at  plague-stricken  spots,  as  a  warning  to  the  observer  to 
keep  away.  How  is  the  medical  import  of  the  color  to 
be  accounted  for  ?  In  Christian  symbolism  it  signifies 
faith,  but  one  must  turn,  I  believe,  to  astrology  to  learn 
the  reason  of  its  medical  significance.  To  the  astrologer, 
3^ellow  was  the  color  of  tiie  sun  ;  and  it  was  to  this 
planet,  anciently  so  regarded,  that  the  possession  of 
greatest  influence  over  disease  was  accorded. 

The  Physician's  Conveyance. — It  is  said  that  Ascle- 
piades,  the  ancient  quack,  perambulated  the  world  on  a 
cow's  back,  living  on  iier  milk  as  he  went  along.  We 
have  no  reason  to  believe  that  such  a  mode  of  moving 
from  point  to  point  ever  became  a  professional  custom ; 
but  physicians  in  recent  times  have  always  had,  in  most 
places,  characteristic  methods  of  travel,  in  their  rounds 
among  their  patients. 

It  appears  that,  previous  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II, 


Miscellaneous  Medical  Symbols.  15t 

it  was  customary  for  the  English  doctors  to  visit  on 
horseback,  "  sitting,"  as  Jeaffreson  says,  "  sideways  on 
foot-cloths,  like  women. "^  At  any  rate,  Aubrej^  says 
that  Harve}^  "  rode  on  horseback  with  a  foot-cloth,  his 
men  following  on  foot,  as  the  fashion  then  was,  which 
was  very  decent,  now  qaite  discontinued. "^  Later,  car- 
riages of  various  kinds,  some  very  showy,  came  into 
vogue. 

For  many  years  the  physicians  of  Philadelphia,  as 
of  other  prominent  American  cities,  have  been  known, 
as  they  have  gone  about  their  duties,  by  their  use  of  a 
special  form  of  phaeton.  It  is  a  four-wheeled  convey- 
ance, with  a  fixed  top,  and  is  drawn  by  one  horse.  Riding 
in  it  is  pleasant,  and  its  generous  top  protects  well  in 
bad  weather.  Several  \^ears  ago  a  two-wheeled  modifi- 
cation of  it  was  introduced,  but  it  did  not  become  popu- 
lar, and  of  late  has  been  disappearing.  By  a  few  of  the 
more  well-to-do  in  the  profession,  two-horse  carriages  of 
various  styles  are  used ;  but  there  is  nothing  character- 
istic about  them. 

The  Physician's  Gold-Headed  Cane. — Much  might 
be  written  about  the  gold-headed  cane  of  the  physician. 
Although  it  has  had  its  da}^,  it  was  long  considered  an 
important  part  of  a  medical  outfit.  Jeaffreson  ventures 
to  affirm  that  formerly  "  no  doctor  would  have  presumed 
to  pay  a  professional  visit,  or  even  to  be  seen  in  public, 
without  this  mj^stic  wand."^  What  was  its  history? 
Did  it  come  down  to  our  time  as  a  representative  of  the 
one  placed  in  the  hand  of  the  god  of  medicine  by  the 
artists  ?  Jeaffreson  expresses  the  opinion  that  it  is  "  a 
relic    of   the  conjuring   paraphernalia   with    which  the 

1  a  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  i,  p,  13: 

'  Letters  and  Lives  of  Eminent  Persons,  vol.  ii,  p.  386.    Loudon,  1813. 

*  A  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  i,  p.  2. 


158  Medical  Symbolism. 

healer  in  ignorant  and  superstitious  times  alwa3'S  worked 
upon  the  imagination  of  the  credulous,"  and  that  "it 
descended  to  him  from  Hermes  and  Mercurius."  "It  was 
a  relic,"  he  adds,  "of  old  jugglery,  and  of  yet  older 
religion. "1  As  the  reader  is  aware,  these  statements  are 
open  to  criticism.  But,  whatever  its  origin  may  have 
been,  it  was  almost  universally  used  by  physicians  until 
recently. 

The  physician's  cane  was  generally  smooth,  of  mod- 
erate weight,  and  with  a  gold  head  in  the  form  of  a  knob. 
A  gold  head!  What  was  the  meaning  of  that?  Was  it 
used  because  of  the  bearer's  reputed  love  of  the  precious 
metal  ?  Chaucer  says,  and  with  charming  casuistrj^,  in 
the  famous  description  of  his  doctor : — 

"  For  gould  in  pliysike  is  a  cordial ; 
Therefore,  he  lovede  gould  in  special."  ^ 

It  ma}^  then,  have  been  its  medicinal  virtues,  virtues 
still  occasionally  lauded  by  therapeutic  prospectors, 
which  suggested  the  use  of  it  in  the  cane.  But,  after  all, 
the  desire  to  make  a  good  appearance  may  have  been  the 
reason  for  its  use. 

The  head  of  the  cane  was  not  alw^a3'S  solid  ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  was  often,  like  man}' a  one's,  doubtless,  who 
carried  it,  hollow.  In  the  cavity,  it  was  customary  to 
keep  something  medicinal,  such  as  ammonia.  About 
this  there  was  much  mystery  in  the  minds  of  the  popu- 
lace. Jeaffreson,  who  may  very  properlj^  be  regarded 
as  of  this  class,  says  that  the  doctor  "  always  held  it 
to  his  nose,  when  he  approached  a  sick  i)erson,  so  that 
its  fumes  might  protect  him  from  the  noxious  exhala- 
tions of  his  patient."^  Something  of  the  kind  is  still 
supposed  by  man}'  to  be  done.  The  idea  was  entertained 

*  A  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  1,  p.  2. 

*  Canterbury  Tales.  '  A  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  i,  p.  3, 


Miscellaneous  Medical  Symbols.  159 

by  more  than  a  few,  that  within  the  head  of  the  cane  ex- 
isted, in  some  cases  at  least,  a  familiar  spirit  which  gave 
the  owner  extraordinary  power.  Paracelsus  was  re- 
puted to  have  within  the  pummel  of  his  long  sword, 
which  he  used  instead  of  a  cane,  a  genius,  in  the  form  of 
a  bird,  which  enabled  him  to  perform  wonders.  Butler 
speaks  of  it  thus  : — 

"  Bombastus  kept  a  devil's  bird, 
Shut  up  in  the  pummel  of  his  sword, 
That  taught  him  all  the  cunning  pranks 
Of  past  and  future  mountebanks. "  ^ 

Alchemists  said  that  it  was  the  philosopher's  stone, 
but  it  has  been  with  better  reason  conjectured^  that 
it  was  laudanum, — an  agent  which  the  bold,  talented 
quack  was  in  the  habit  of  using  much  with  striking 
results. 

There  is  i)i*eserved,  in  the  College  of  Physicians  of 
London,  a  cane  which  was  carried  successively  by  Drs. 
Kadcliffe,  Mead,  Askew,  Pitcairn,  and  Baillie.  On  it 
are  coats-of-arms  used  by  the  distinguished  carriers  of 
it.  The  gold  head  of  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  crooked 
cross-bar,  and  not  a  knob, — the  orthodox  one.  A  book 
has  been  written  with  it  for  the  title,  treating  of  its 
several  owners.^ 

The  Physician's  Dress. — At  the  present  time  there 
is  nothing  about  the  dress  of  the  physician  symbolic 
of  his  calling.  Formerly  the  case  was  different.  Until 
less  than  a  century  ago,  the  dress  of  the  members  of  the 
medical  profession  was  both  decidedly  t3'pical  and  re- 
markable. It  was  worn  last,  it  is  said,  by  Dr.  Henry 
Revell  Reynolds,  one  of  the  physicians  of  George 
III.     The  items  of  it  were  :  a  well-powdered  three-tailed 

*  Hudibras.  ^  Occult  Sciences,  p.  40. 

s  The  Gold-Headed  Cane.    By  Dr.  McMichael.    London,  1828. 


160  3Iedwal  Symbolism. 

wig,  a  silk  coat,  breeches,  stockings,  buckled  shoes,  and 
lace  ruffles.  Says  Jeatfreson  :  "  Next  to  his  cane,  the 
phj'sician's  wig  was  the  most  important  of  his  accoutre- 
ments. It  gave  profound  learning  and  wise  thought  to 
lads  just  out  of  their  teens. "^  If  this  were  the  case  it 
sliould  be  coaxed  into  use  a<>;ain. 

The  Physician's  Ring. — Among  the  ancients,  rings 
were  held  in  high  esteem.  The  signet  of  Solomon, 
which  had  considerable  to  do  with  the  building  of  the 
great  temple,  and  tlie  ring  of  Gyges,  the  shepherd  of  the 
king  of  Lydia,  through  wliich  he  could  become  invisible 
and  see  people  at  pleasure,  are  examples  of  the  sur- 
prising powers  often  accorded  to  them.  One  was,  until 
a  period  not  far  distant,  an  important  item  of  the  insig- 
nia of  the  medical  man.  It  is  spoken  of  in  one  of  the 
spurious  Hippocratic  works.  The  seal  variety  was  the 
orthodox  one.  Different  stones  were  used, and  on  these 
were  engraved  various  designs.  As  indicative  of  his 
position,  a  learned  writer  says  that  the  doctor  wore  the 
rino-  "  on  the  third  finder  of  the  ris-lit  hand."^ 

The  physician's  ring  was  viewed  generally  in  the 
lioht  of  an  amulet,  or  talisman.  The  eno-ravins;  it  bore 
had  much  to  do  with  its  supposed  virtues  ;  and  the  stone 
also  gave  it  special  value.  Aubrey  thus  refers  to  a 
sapphire  ring :  "  The}^  say  it  preserves  from  infection 
and  pestilential  diseases.  See  Albertus  Magnus  de  hoc. 
I  warrant  he  has  recited  virtues  enough  of  it."^  Red 
carnelian  was  believed  to  be  curative  of  ha?morrha<>e, 
and  coral  of  nervous  affections. 

'  A  Book  about  Doctors,  vol.  i,  p.  11. 

^  Finger-Ring  Lore.    Bj'  William  Jones,  p.  191.    London,  1877. 

*  Remaines  of  Gentilisme  and  Judaisme,  p.  210. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

MEDICAL   SY>IBOLISM   IN   PRACTICE. 

It  is  hardly  necessarj^  to  sa}'  to  the  reader  who  has 
followed  me  this  far  that  the  scope  of  medical  symbolism 
is  not  ver}-  restricted.  In  extent  it  is  obviously  not 
limited  ;  nor  is  it  without  variet}^  and  the  means  of  vari- 
ety enough.  Yet  how  little  use  does  one  see  made  of  it  1 
How  seldom  do  publishers  take  any  advantage  whatever 
of  it,  on  the  covers  of  their  books  or  an}' where  else ! 
And  what  little  is  here  and  there  attempted  is  apt  to  be 
a  trifle  preposterous,  on  a  par  with  the  misuse  of  the 
serpent  b}'  the  quack-medicine  man,  who  confounds  the 
most  obvious  religious  (Christian)  significance  of  it  with 
the  medical. 

Examples  without  limit  of  questionable  medical  sym- 
bols might  be  given.  Here  is  a  publisher  who  makes 
use  of  the  caduceus  of  Hermes ;  there  is  one  who  dis- 
plays the  club  of  Hercules,  with  a  rather  venomous- 
looking  serpent  crawling  down  it  from  aloft ;  and  yonder 
one  who  exhibits  a  skull  on  a  closed  book,  suggestive 
of  a  hopeless  meditation  on  death, — the  reverse  of  what 
the  ph3'sician  should  indulge  in.  But,  at  a  time  when 
the  absence  of  sj^mbols  is  almost  the  rule,  perhaps  one 
should  try  to  be  a  little  blind  to  the  faults  of  those  which 
are  met  with. 

Of  a  collection  of  medical  sj-mbols  on  hand,  few  are 
notabl}'  good.  I  mav  instance  a  fair  specimen.  On  the 
title-page  of  a  journal  edited  b}"  the  late  Dr.  Dungiison, 
a  learned  and  sensible  man,  The  American  Medical 
Intelligencer^  which  had  a  brief  existence  in  the  latter 

G^  (161) 


162 


Medical  Symbolism. 


lialf  of  the  fourth  decade  of  this  century,  appears  the 
figure  a  copy  of  which  is  here  given  (Fig.  26).  The  idea 
is  better  than  its  execution. 

Ideas  for  symbolic  designs  of  medical  import  are  not 
scarce.  The  instruments  and  drugs  used  by  the  disci- 
ples of  -^sculapius  afford  a  host,  if  one  does  not  wish 
to  turn  to  mj'thology  or  anything  allied.  But,  although 
the  scientific  ph3'sician  might  properl}''  hesitate  about 
using,  say,  an  emblem  of  St.  Luke,  the  patron  saint  of 
ph3'sicians,  there  are  mythological  and  related  concep- 
tions, many  of  which  might  be  utilized  to  good  purpose. 
Thus,  if  it  be  desired  to  give  an  Egj'ptian  design  on  the 
cover  of  a  book,  sa}^,  on  obstetrics,  the 
main  part  of  an  admirable  one  may  be 
found  ready  at  hand  on  the  wall  of  the 
great  temple  at  Luxor.  ^  It  is  the  scene 
— and  a  sufficiently  chaste  one,  too — of 
the  maiden  mother  giving  birth  to  the 
future  king,  Amunotoph  III,  for  whom 
the  temple  or  palace  was  erected  about 
1400  B.C.  She  is  seated  on  the  midwife's 
stool,  as  described  in  the  Bible, ^  while 
two  nurses  have  her  by  the  hands,  doing  what  they 
can  to  ease  the  pains  of  labor.  Or,  a  representation 
of  Pasht,  Bubastis,  or  Sekhet,  the  sister  of  Horus  and 
mother  of  Imhotep, — who  generally  appeared  cat-headed 
because  the  cat,  a  most  sacred  animal,  was  consecrated 
to  her, — would  not  be  inappropriate;  for,  to  use  the 
words  of  Ebers,  "  she  seems  to  have  been  honored  as  the 
deity  who  conferred  the  blessing  of  children  and  watched 
over  their  birth. "^ 

But,  for  a  design  of  obstetrical  import,  there  could 


Fig.  26.— a  Medi- 
cal SYMBOIi. 


»  See  Sharpe's  E}>:yptian  Mythology,  p.  19.  "  Exodus,  i,  16. 

'  Priucess,  vol.  i,  p.  37. 


Medical  Symbolism  in  Practice.  163 

probably  be  few  better  than  one  in  which  prominence 
were  given  to  the  good  housewifery  symbols, — the  pes- 
tle, hatchet,  and  broom ;  those,  respectively,  of  Piliim- 
nus,  a  god  of  children ;  Intercidona,  the  goddess  who 
first  taught  the  art  of  cutting  firewood ;  and  Deverra, 
the  goddess  who  invented  the  broom,  that  great  instru- 
ment of  cleanness  and  enemy  of  the  Typhon,  or,  I  may 
say,  H3^dra,  of  many  modern  doctors, — the  disease- 
germ  :  the  deities  that  saved  the  pregnant  woman  from 
harm  from  her  special  enemies,  the  unclean  sylvan  gods. 
The  broom !  Wise  old  Romans  I  Wiser  than  the  un- 
steady enthusiasts  of  our  time,  with  bottles  of  carbolic 
acid  in  their  hands  yesterday  and  of  corrosive  sublimate 
to-day.  And  with  these  symbols,  especially  if  the  de- 
sign were  for  a  work  by  a  female  author,  there  might  be 
given  a  figure  of  Juno  Lucina,  the  special  friend  of 
women  in  labor,  the  type  of  the  Eileithyiai,  the  hand- 
maids of  Hera,  of  the  Greeks. 

And  here  I  may  observe  that,  according  to  ancient 
custom,  the  goddess  Juno  Lucina  should  be  represented 
with  one  hand  empty  and,  as  it  were,  ready  to  receive 
the  coming  infant,  and  with  the  other  holding  a  lighted 
torch,  a  symbol  of  life.  The  torch  should  be  erect,  for 
when  the  flame  is  turned  downward  it  signifies  death. 
In  the  seal  of  the  American  Gynaecological  Society,  a 
woman,  possibly  meant  for  Juno,  is  represented  with  a 
torch  in  her  right  hand  and  in  the  other  a  sprig  of  ever- 
green, with  a  baby  resting  on  the  arm.  This  is  of  ob- 
stetric import.  The  members  of  the  society,  however, 
consider  themselves  something  else  than  midwives. 
Judging  from  their  title,  they  might  be  petits  maitres. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE   PENTACLE. 

By  way  of  conclusion,  and  at  the  risk  of  rimningtoo 
deep  into  occult  learning,  I  will  give  some  account  of  a 
remarkable  magic  figure,  of  interest  to  the  physician, 
about  which  little  appears  to  be  generally  known,  but 
which  is  often  referred  to  in  certain  out-of-the-way  hues 
of  study.     I  refer  to  the  pentacle,  or  triple  triangle,  the 
peutalpha  of  Pythagoras,  the  formulator  of  a  celebrated 
system  of  philosoph}^,  the  basal  idea  of  which  is  that  all 
things  sprang  from  numbers.     A 
representation  of  it  in  its  simple 
form  is  given   herewith.     On  in- 
spection, it  will  be  observed  that 
the  figure  has  five  arms,  or  points, 
five    double    triangles,   with    five     fj^. 27.-The Pentacle. 
acute   angles  within   and  five  ob- 
tuse ones  without;  so  that,  if  five — a  number  made  up 
of  the  first  even   (2)   and   the  first^   odd  one  (3)— be 
possessed  of  the  virtue  which  the  occult  philosophers 
have  asserted,  the  pentacle  must  have  much.     It  is^  in 
fact,  the  famous  legendary  key  of  Solomon,  which  has 
played  a  remarkable  role  in  history.     Tennyson,  one  of 
the  few  well-known  authors  by  whom  reference  to  it  is 
made,  speaks  of  it  when  he  makes  one  of  his  characters 
(Katie)  thoughtlessly  draw  (it  can  be  done  through  one 

stroke) — 

"With  her  slender-pointed  foot, 

Some  figure  like  a  wizard's  pentagram. 
On  garden  gravel. "2 

*  One  was  not  regarded  as  a  number.  "^  The  Brook. 

(165) 


166  Medical  Symbolism. 

I  have  said  that  little  is  generally  known  about  the 
pentacle.  Here  is  some  evidence  :  Ruskin  defines  it  to 
be  "  a  five-pointed  star,  or  a  double-triangle  ornament, 
the  symbol  of  the  trinity  "^ — a  wrong  definition,  but  not 
quite  as  bad  as  that  given  in  Mollett's  handsome  work, 
to  wit :  "A  fio-ure  formed  of  two  trianoles,  intersected 
so  as  to  form  a  six-pointed  star."^  The  opinion  is  ex- 
pressed by  Ba3^ard  Taylor  that  the  magical  powers 
attributed  to  it  could  be  explained  by  the  fact  that,  being 
made  up  of  three  triangles,  it  was  a  "  triple  S3mibol  of  the 
trinity."^  This  may  be  true,  but  it  was  regarded  as 
possessing  mysterious  powers  long  before  Christianity 
originated. 

A  common  mistake — the  one  evidently  made  by 
Mollett — of  even  learned  writers  (as,  for  example,  Oliver* 
and  Fairholt'^)  is  to  confound  the  pentacle  with  the  seal 
of  Solomon  (called  also  the  shield  of  David),  which  con- 
sists of  two  equilateral  triangles  so  arranged  as  to  form 
a  six-pointed  star. 

By  the  German  writers  on  magic  and  kindred  sub- 
jects, the  pentacle  is  often  called  Drudenfiiss, — that  is, 
wizard's  foot, — a  term  which  Mackey®  takes  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  word  for  Druid's  foot,  by  which  people 
it  was  in  use,  being  often  worn,  as  a  symbol  of  deity,  on 
their  sandals.  As  Ba3^ard  Taylor,  however,  sa3^s  :  ^^Drud, 
from  the  same  root  as  Druid,  was  the  old  German  word 
for  wizard."  In  Mr.  Blake's  interesting  book,^  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  ver3^  old  coin  is  given,  on  which  the  mystic 
figure  appears. 

»  Art  Culture,  p.  408.    New  York,  1874. 

»  Dictionary  of  Words  used  in  Art  and  Arcliaeology.    Boston,  1882. 

3  In  his  notes  to  Faust. 

*  The  Pythagorean  Triangle.    London,  1875. 

*  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art. 

^  Encyclopaedia  of  Freemasonry.    Philadelphia,  1875. 
'  Astronomical  Myths.    London,  1877. 


The  Pentacle.  161 

The  pentacle  has  been  observed  on  a  figure  of  Annbis, 
in  Egypt.  It  is  statecU  that  it  was  used  on  coins  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  also^  of  Lysimachus.  I  have 
seen  it  stated  somewhere  that  it  is  one  of  the  old  sect 
marks  of  the  Hindus ;  but  this  is  an  error,  I  believe. 
By  referring  to  Coleman's^  or  Birdwood's'*  w^ork,  it 
will  be  found  that  it  is  Solomon's  seal  which  has  been 
so  used.  It  was  one  of  the  totems  of  the  American 
Indians.  Dawson^  gives  a  picture  of  it  as  seen  sculp- 
tured on  the  Roches  Percees,  a  remarkable  solitary  mass 
of  sandstone  on  the  plains  west  of  Manitoba. 

I  have  said  that  the  pentacle  has  been  observed  on 
a  figure  of  Anubis.  It  would  appear  to  have  been  well 
known  and  highly  prized  by  the  early  Egyptians,  or 
rather,  perhaps,  I  sliould  say  Egjqito-Chaldeans,  if  a 
recent  writer,  Mr.  Robert  Ballard,  is  to  be  believed.  He 
declares  that  "  it  is  the  geometric  emblem  of  extreme 
and  mean  ratio,  and  the  symbol  of  the  Egyptian 
pyramid,  Cheops."^  Let  a  pentacle  be  formed  within  a 
circle.  Around  the  interior  pentagon  of  it  describe  a 
circle.  Around  this  circle  form  a  square.  "  Tlien  will 
the  square  represent  the  base  of  Cheops."  Again,  draw 
two  diameters  to  the  outer  circle,  intersecting  at  right 
angles,  and  each  parallel  to  a  side  of  the  square.  "  Then 
will  the  parts  of  those  diameters,  between  the  square 
and  the  outer  circle,  represent  the  four  apothems  of  the 
four  slant-sides  of  the  pj^ramid."  Still  again,  connect 
by  lines  the  angles  of  the  square  with  the  outer  circle 
at    the    four    points    indicated    by    the    ends    of    the 

*  Biougliton's  Italy,  vol.  li. 

^  Notes  and  Queries,  vol.  ix,  p.  511,  third  series. 
3  Mythology  of  the  Hindus.    London,  1832. 

*  Indian  Arts.    London,  1880. 

*  Fossil  jNIen  and  their  Modern  Representatives,  p.  272.    London,  1880. 
«  The  Solution  of  the  Pyramid  Problem,  p.  92.    New  York,  1882. 


168  Medical  Symbolism. 

diameters.  Then  "  the  star  of  the  p3a-amid  is  formed, 
which,  when  closed  as  a  solid,  will  be  a  correct  model 
of  Cheops." 

Mr.  Ballard,  it  is  to  be  feared,  like  Mr.  Piazzi  Smyth, 
has  not  the  power  to  perceive  coincidences  and  after- 
thonghts.  His  book,  however,  is  decidedly  original  and 
interesting. 

I  may  observe  that  if  the  plan  of  the  great  pyramid 
was  fashioned  after  the  pentacle,  and  Mr.  Proctor  be 
right  in  saying  that  it  is  identical  with  "  the  ordinary 
square  scheme  of  nativity," ^  the  figure  of  the  astrologers 


Fig.  28.— The  Pentacle  and  the  Great  Pyramid. 

used  in  casting  horoscopes,  it  follows  that  the  pentacle 
furnishes  also  a  ke}^  to  the  latter.  Then,  if  it  be  a  fact 
that  the  pyramid  was  designed  b}^  and  constructed  under 
the  superintendence  of  early  Chaldeans,  one  has  reason 
to  infer  that  the  j)entacle  was  of  Oriental  origin.  Prob- 
ably it  was  at  first  a  symbol  of  the  sun, — a  purpose  for 
which  it  has  been  used  by  different  bodies  of  m3'stics, 
and  others. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  figure  was  one  of 
the    symbols    of    tlie   great   hero-myth,  Quetzalcoatl,  a 
«  The  Great  Pyramid,  p.  35. 


The  Pentacle.  169 

liglit-god  according  to  some,  but  really,  according  to 
Reville,^  a  god  of  the  wind,  who  was  generally  repre- 
sented in  the  form  of  a  feathered  serpent.  Thus  Dr. 
Brinton  says:  "  In  one  of  the  earliest  m3'ths  he  is  called 
Yahualli  ehecatl,  meaning  '  the  wheel  of  the  winds,'  the 
winds  being  portraj^ed  in  the  picture-writing  as  a  circle 
or  wheel,  with  a  figure  with  five  angles  inscribed  upon 
it,  the  sacred  pentagram.  His  image  carried  in  the  left 
hand  this  wheel,  and  in  the  right  a  sceptre  with  the  end 
recurved. "2 

The  pentacle  has  been  accorded  great  potenc}^,  and 
used  extensively  to  keep  oft' witches  and  all  sorts  of  evil 
influences,  including  the  devil  himself,  and  hence  it  has 
served  purposes  ver}^  similar  to  those  to  which  the 
horseshoe  has  often  been  put.  Aubrey  says  that  it  was 
formerly  used  by  the  Greek  Christians,  as  the  sign  of 
the  cross  is  now,  "  at  the  beginning  of  letters  or  books 
for  good  luck's  sake,"^ — something  which  old  John 
Eveljm  was  wont  to  do  in  his  works,  and  as  Southey 
placed  the  puzzling  monogram,*  meant,  perhaps,  to 
have  similar  significance  on  the  title-page  of  his  book, 
"  The  Doctor."  One  is  found  in  the  western  window 
of  the  south  aisle  of  Westminster  Abbe}^  which,  doubt- 
less, the  black  monks,  as  they  chanted  in  the  choir,  often 
looked  on  with  superstitious  emotion.  It  may  be  seen 
on  many  a  cradle  and  threshold  at  the  present  day  in 
the  Fatherland. 

The  readers  of  Goethe's  o-reat  work  will  remember 
that  Dr.  Faust  had  one  on  his  threshold,  and  that,  when 
he  began  to  perceive  that  there  was  something  decidedly 

*  The  Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  p.  57.    New  York,  1884. 
^  American  Hero-Myths,  p.  121. 

3  Remaines  of  Gentili.-me  and  Judaisme,  p.  51. 

*  An  eqvialateral  trian^ile  divided  into  three  equal  triangles  by  lines 
meeting  from  the  three  angles. 

8    H 


170  Medical  Symbolism. 

suspicious  about  the  character  of  the  "  poodle,"  he  re- 
marked that 

"  riir  solche  halbe  Hollenbrut 
1st  Salomonis  Schliissel  gut." 

How  Mephistopheles  himself  got  in  was  afterward 
explained  by  his  showing  that  one  of  the  angles  of  the 
"  Drudenfuss  "  was  left  open. 

Disciples  of  the  Samian  sage,  cabalistic^  Jews  and 
Arabians,  and  others,  especially  Gnostics,  long  viewed 
the  pentacle  as  a  symbol  of  health,  and  made  use  of  it  as 


Fig.  29.— Hygeia,  a  Symbol,  of  Health. 

an  amulet,  calling  it  H3^geia,  the  name  of  the  goddess 
of  health.  It  was  so  called,  and  to  some  extent,  likely 
for  a  similar  reason,  regarded  as  a  sacred  sjnnbol  of 
health,  because  it  could  be  resolved,  it  was  believed,  into 

*  Professors  of  the  Cabbala,  a  mystic  philosophy,  believed  that  there 
was  a  secret  meaning  in  Holy  Writ  and  a  higher  meaning  in  the  law,  and 
pretended  to  be  able  to  perform  miracles  by  the  use  of  names  and  incan- 
tations. Auerbach  gives  an  interesting  account  of  them  in  his  novel, 
"  Spinoza."  He  gives  this  as  an  instance  of  their  mode  of  reasoning :  "The 
Hebrew  word  for  Messiah  contains  tlie  same  number  as  the  Hebrew  word 
for  serpent,  in  which  form  Satan  seduced  Eve;  the  Messiah  will,  there- 
fore, bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent  aud  banish  sin  and  death  from  the 
world." 


The  Pentacle.  Itl 

the  Greek  letters  which  form  the  word  H3^geia ;  and 
these  were  placed  one  on  each  point  of  the  figure.  ^  It 
was  accepted,  in  fact,  as  a  sort  of  rebus  of  the  name  of 
the  celebrated  daughter  of  ^sculapius.  The  scholarly 
and  ingenious  reader  may  be  able  to  trace,  more  or  less 
definitely,  this  reputed  similarity.  It  is  an  interesting 
feature  of  what  is  certainly  a  very  remarkable  figure. 

1  The  word  Salus,  the  synonymous  Latin  name,  was  also  used  in  the 
same  way.  In  Mrs.  Pelliser's  work  it  is  thus  seen.  It  is  there  spoken  of  as 
a  device  used  by  Marguerite  of  France,  wife  of  Henry  IV  and  the  last  of 
the  Valois. 


DUE  DATE 

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